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2001). The measure consists of 104 statements and takes approximately
20-30 minutes to complete. Respondents are asked to select one of five
categories ranging from “in the last day” to “a year ago or longer” based
on the time that is most accurate for each statement. The DAPS is com-
posed of 2 validity and 11 clinical scales. It also includes three PTSD
symptom clusters (re-experiencing, avoidance, hyperarousal) and three
associated features of PTSD (dissociation, substance abuse, suicidality)
related to a particular traumatic event. Results on the DAPS produce a
provisional diagnosis of PTSD or ASD based on the Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (APA, 2000) criteria.

Personality Assessment Screener (PAS)

The PAS was used to assess for normative mental health, and was
developed by Morey as both a brief assessment of mental health and a
tool to identify clinical issues Morey, 1997. It consists of 22 items, each
assessing the degree to which a particular symptom has caused discomfort
in the respondent. Symptom distress is rated on a four-point Likert scale
ranging from “false” to “very true.” The items generate a total score and
10 “element” subscales that correspond to psychological symptoms
including: negative affect, psychotic features, suicidal thinking, anger
control, acting out, social withdrawal, alienation, health problems, hostile
control, and alcohol problems. High scores indicate a high likelihood of
problematic psychological functioning in the participant. Any score above
50 is considered in the clinical range (Morey, 1997). Raw scores on the
PAS were converted into P-scores. A P-score of 50 or more indicates that
a person has a 50% chance of exhibiting some type of clinical problems.
For the purpose of the current study, a person who exhibited normative
mental health was considered resilient.

The Michigan Alcoholism Screening Test (MAST) and the Drug
Abuse Screening Test (DAST)

The MAST and DAST were used to assess for alcohol abuse and abuse
of prescription and illegal drugs, respectively, in the past 12 months;
(Selzer, 1971; Skinner, 1982). The MAST consists of 25 items and the
DAST 28 items measured on dichotomous (yes/no) scales. The MAST is
scored by adding the points for each “yes” answer. Items are weighted
and behaviors or feelings that are especially indicative of a problem with
alcohol are weighted more heavily. An overall score of three or less indi-
cates no difficulties with alcohol, while a score of four indicates possible

Suzuki, Geffner, and Bucky 109

alcoholism and a score of five or more is indicative of alcoholism (Selzer,
1971). For the DAST, the total score is achieved by adding all endorsed
items in the direction of drug abuse problems within the past 12 months.
Each item is weighted equally, and total scores can range from 0 to 28,
with higher scores indicating a greater degree of problems with drug
abuse. Individuals scoring five points or more are very likely to be sub-
stance abusers or substance dependent. For the purpose of the current
study, a person who did not have an alcohol or substance abuse problem
was considered resilient.

Procedures

Flyers were placed around college campuses in San Diego, California,
as well as free and paid advertisements in local newspapers. Potential par-
ticipants voluntarily completed a demographic screener/questionnaire.
Individuals who qualified were then invited to participate. A total of 121
people were screened and 19 qualified for further participation in the
study. Of the 19 qualifying participants, three missed their scheduled
appointments (one declined to reschedule and two could not be contacted
to reschedule) and six did not meet the established criteria based on the
written measures, resulting in 10 participants who met eligibility criteria.

After completion of the eligibility screening measures, eligible partici-
pants completed a semi-structured, in-depth interview. Interview topics
included the participant’s experiences of exposure to IPV as a child and
the internal/individual characteristics, family, and external factors that
contributed to his/her resilience. Interview questions were based on
themes suggested by the literature regarding resilience. After completion
of the interview, each participant was verbally debriefed. At the end of
debriefing, interview participants received a $50 incentive. All proce-
dures were reviewed and approved by the Institutional Review Board at
the California School of Professional Psychology at Alliant International
University.

RESULTS

Eligibility Screening

Table 2 depicts the scores of each participant on the CTS2-CA. Based
on a clinical interpretation of these data, results indicate that all partici-
pants were exposed to IPV as children. Table 3 displays participants’

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112 JOURNAL OF EMOTIONAL ABUSE

T-scores on the DAPS scales. Of the 10 participants, none met the criteria
for a diagnosis of either PTSD or ASD.’ Several of the participants did,
however, experience some type of trauma as a result of the exposure to
IPV. Seven of the participants’ T-scores were clinically significant in the
Peritraumatic Distress scale (PDST; T-scores 65-75), indicating that the
individual experienced emotional and cognitive stress during the time of
the traumatic event. Three participants endorsed items for the Peritrau-
matic Dissociation scale (PDIS), suggesting that the individuals dissoci-
ated during the traumatic event. P-scores on the PAS ranged from 5.7 to
48.9, with a mean of P-score of 31. The scores for Kirsten and Roseanne
(P-scores of 5.7 and 14.1, respectively) indicated that it is unlikely that
they have any identifiable clinical problems. Lastly, participants’ scores
on the MAST and DAST ranged from 0-3, indicating that substance or
alcohol abuse issues were unlikely.

Major and Minor Research Findings Based on Interviews

The results of the qualitative analyses of the interview data yielded
major and minor themes that were grouped into three categories. These
categories included internal factors/individual characteristics, family fac-
tors, and external factors. Major themes were defined as being endorsed
by 80% or more of the participants, and minor themes were endorsed by
50-70% of the participants.

Internal Factors/Individual Characteristics

Planning and Pursuing Goals

Nine participants viewed themselves as oriented to achieving future
goals. They were optimistic and hopeful of the future and planned to
achieve their personal and professional objectives. Josie and Roseanne
indicated that planning for the future was their way of creating structure
and having a stable environment. In fact, Roseanne believed her unstable
childhood experiences may have carried over into her adult life and now
she “wants everything to be very stable, very goal-oriented, organized.”

Academic Success

Nine participants reported that they were successful academically. The
demographic information obtained from the participants provided some
supporting evidence for this factor. All 10 participants had finished high
school, two completed some college, three were college graduates, and

Suzuki, Geffner, and Bucky 113

four earned Master’s degrees. The participants also valued education as a
way to improve their lives, and indicated that they were smart. Marissa,
Cindy, and Roseanne stated that they were in accelerated classes, while
Josie, Kirsten, and Gina reported that they experienced educational diffi-
culties but had managed to overcome those challenges. These two opposing
experiences exemplified the complexity of this factor. A person may feel
adept because they earn high grades or they may feel proficient because
they met and exceeded expectations despite the learning difficulties. In
either case, the participants believed that their academic success was a
factor to their resilience.

Internal Locus of Control

An internal locus of control was identified as important by eight
participants. They described having control and structure in their lives.
Additionally, the participants attributed their success to their perseverance
and hard work. They also reported that they often felt unstable and
encountered unpredictable family situations when growing up. Thus, it is
reasonable to consider that they felt the need to control their environments
in order to maintain stability in their lives.

Regulating Emotions

Eight participants reported that they adequately controlled their
emotional states and were able to do so with relative ease. In particular,
they believed that it was easier to control positive feelings rather than
negative emotions. For example, Marissa, Gina, and Kirsten disclosed
that it was difficult to manage their anger. The participants described
avoiding negative emotional experiences, especially feelings they associ-
ated with the IPV (e.g., anger), and did not believe that they handled those
feelings adequately. Thus, these individuals were focused on maintaining
a more stable emotional state.

Generally Positive Perception of Self

Many participants described having generally positive self-perceptions.
Additionally, they characterized their self-esteem as usually high or ade-
quate. They demonstrated their confidence in a variety of professional and
personal situations. For the participants, having a strong sense of self was
related to overall positive perceptions of their persona. These individual
characterized themselves as caring, sensitive to others, intelligent, easy-
going, good-humored, and light-hearted. Additionally, these favorable

114 JOURNAL OF EMOTIONAL ABUSE

characteristics were associated with other protective factors identified
during their interviews. For example, Marissa identified being intelligent
and reported that she experienced a high degree of academic success,
which then reinforced her positive self-image.

Learning from Past Experiences

The aggression experienced in childhood was not a strong reinforcer
for the adults in this study, and eight participants shared how they had
learned from their past experiences. Although Claire, Cindy, and Kirsten
admitted having abusive relationships in the past, their current intimate
relationships were not violent. In fact, participants who endorsed this
theme suggested that they did not desire to behave or observe their partner
engaging in a manner similar to the IPV to which they were exposed
during childhood. Each individual described how they made a strong
commitment not to engage in IPV.

Family Factors

Closeness to Someone in their Family of Origin

Despite childhood exposure to IPV, nine participants stated that they
were close to a member of their families of origin. Two of these nine indi-
viduals identified a general closeness in their families of origin. Seven
participants were close to a parent, while five reported being connected to
a sibling. Kirsten described being particularly close to her mother when
her father acted out aggressively. Some participants identified characteris-
tics of respect and nurturing in their relationships with family members.
For example, Cindy appreciated the care and availability of her mother.
Thus, it appears that closeness to a family member is an essential buffer
for adults exposed to IPV as children.

Physical Distance from Family of Origin

Six participants revealed that physically distancing themselves from
their families of origin was important to their positive adjustment. This
minor theme presents potentially new information about resilience among
adults exposed to IPV as children. It appears logical that these individuals
needed to individuate from their families of origin. In fact, Peter and
Kirsten specifically addressed separation and individuation. Another rea-
son for removing themselves physically from their families of origin was
a means to create and maintain manageable boundaries with their parents.

Suzuki, Geffner, and Bucky 115

For example, Claire reinforced her decision to move 3000 miles away
from her parents and added that she was in control of how much time she
invested speaking with her parents.

This theme interacted with others presented previously, particularly the
internal factors or individual characteristics. High self-esteem and posi-
tive perceptions of self are concepts associated with the task of develop-
ing a strong sense of self while separating and individuating from the
family of origin. Having an internal locus of control is a factor that relates
to being able to manage relationships with family members while main-
taining a sense of self. Thus, individuation from family members appears
to be an important feature to the resilient process.

Accepting Family of Origin Imperfections

The ability to accept flaws in their families of origin was a factor
endorsed by six participants. These individuals recognized the imperfections
of their parents and their parents’ relationship. This finding is interesting
as it demonstrates a unique concept associated with resilience among
adults exposed to IPV as children. That is, participants demonstrated the
ability to evaluate and accept the imperfections in their families of origin
while developing a sense of self separate from them. For example,
Marissa shared that while she did not always understand her parents’ rela-
tionship, she felt a part of the family.

Retaining Family of Origin Values

Five participants reported that they maintained values that they learned
from their families of origin. Evaluating the beliefs learned from the family
of origin is a component of developing autonomous values. For example,
Josie recognized that her orientation toward future goals was directly
related to being raised in an environment that values pursuing goals.
Thus, retaining family of origin values is connected to the development of
a sense of self that is related to the process of resilience among adults
exposed to IPV as children.

Developing a Closer Relationship with a Parent

Reconnecting with a parent was identified by five participants as a pos-
itive step in their development. For example, Gina described confronting
her father about her negative experiences in childhood. Through this open
dialogue, she was able to reconnect with her father and increase a level of
emotional intimacy.

116 JOURNAL OF EMOTIONAL ABUSE

External Factors

Social Support System

Probably the most significant finding in the current study is that all 10
participants addressed the importance of a social support system. They
felt secure in their relationships with others and described maintaining
stable friendships. Social support is a critical component to resilience for
several reasons. First, the individual searches for support outside the more
unstable and volatile family system. For example, Cindy recognized that
her friends were the support that she created outside her family of origin.
Additionally, developing peer relationships provides an opportunity to
experience different beliefs and values from those of the family of origin.
Marissa identified having friends “who came from totally different places….
very different lives” and found it a fascinating aspect of her relationships.
Peer relationships also allowed for the free expression of emotional expe-
riences. For instance, Gina reported that her peer relationships gave her
the chance to communicate her feelings freely. The ability to obtain alter-
native opinions and advice is another feature of social support networks.
Lydia characterized her peer relationships as honest; she and her friends
were able to share opposing viewpoints during their conversations.
Lastly, peer relationships provided a secure and stable environment for
individuals. For example, Claire reported that she trusts her friends
“incessantly.”

Important Adult Figures in Childhood

Another external factor that emerged was the presence of a positive
adult figure in childhood. Nine participants described extended family
members, teachers, coaches, and friends’ parents as instrumental adults in
their childhood. Some viewed the adult figures in their lives as role mod-
els for parenting and strength. Additionally, the adults present during their
childhoods also modeled healthy relationship interactions.

Spiritual Beliefs

Nine participants reported having spiritual beliefs that allowed them to
feel more connected to themselves and others. Spirituality was also con-
sidered a foundational component to their understanding of themselves
and their interactions with their environment. A spiritual belief system is
an important factor to resilience because it strengthens the perception of

Suzuki, Geffner, and Bucky 117

self For example, Peter disclosed that he meditates in order to be more
aware of himself and to hear his “inner voice.” Spiritual beliefs are also
important structures for individuals who experience adversity. Josie stated
that her religion, Judaism, provided a structure for self-growth. Addition-
ally, spiritual beliefs are used to connect with others. For instance, Cindy
reported that her spirituality allowed her to connect with other people and
help them on their lifelong paths.

Extracurricular Activities

This factor was noted by seven participants as instrumental to their
resilience. The extracurricular activities described by participants
included after-school activities, sports, and art. These activities increased
self-esteem, were positive reinforcements, and were ways to escape from
their families of origin. Internal factors or individual characteristics such
as a positive perception of self or internal locus of control are seemingly
related to outside interests. For example, Marissa described that her
involvement in artistic expression assisted her in developing competencies
and increased her self-esteem. It is reasonable to assume that extracurricu-
lar activities also link with other protective factors previously mentioned
that promote resilience among adults exposed to IPV as children.

DISCUSSION

The present study increased our understanding of resilience among
individuals exposed to IPV as children. A significant finding was the abil-
ity of the participants to learn from previous experiences and to change
their behaviors and attitudes as they grew up. This concept is a central
feature of resilience. It represents the ability to find meaning and live pro-
ductively in spite of experiencing adversity (Werner, 1990). One of the
main reasons the participants seemed to be resilient to the trauma was
their ability to regulate emotions during their development. This major
theme may also relate to having an internal locus of control for these indi-
viduals. Future research in this area of resilience may be able to delineate
the relationship between regulating emotions and having an internal locus
of control among adults exposed to IPV as children.

In addition, all 10 participants identified having a social support net-
work as an important feature to their resilience. This protective factor is
an established component of resilience and has been identified in multiple
studies for other areas of childhood trauma (ParappuUy, Rosenbaum, Van

118 JOURNAL OF EMOTIONAL ABUSE

Den Daele, & Nzewi, 2002; Valentine & Feinauer, 1993; Werner, 1990).
However, specific ways to promote the use of this factor have yet to be
explored for children exposed to IPV. It would be helpful to determine
ways to promote social support for such children in schools or in clinical
settings.

A prevention approach based on the present findings could be
useful in developing programs to promote resilience among children
currently exposed to IPV. Treatment with children can be imple-
mented in individual, family, and group therapy modalities. As 60% of
violent men reported being exposed to IPV as children (Delsol &
Margolin, 2004), it is also important to intervene early to prevent the
intergenerational transmission of abuse. Clinical treatment should
include interventions with offenders, victims, and their children. New
assessment tools that measure resilience among individuals who expe-
rience adversities are expected to assist with clinical intervention by
identifying strengths at early ages (Tedeschi & Kilmer, 2005). These
measures can be implemented in addition to recommended treatment
in order to foster resilience among these individuals. Lastly, under-
standing the perceived trauma associated with exposure to IPV is also
necessary in order to provide appropriate therapeutic interventions
with this population.

The purpose of using the DAPS in the present study was to collect col-
lateral information about participants’ perceived level of trauma. The
information provided from the DAPS indicates that exposure to IPV can
be cognitively and emotionally distressing to individuals, as indicated by
high T-scores on the PDST and PDIS scales. These findings suggest that
individuals exposed to IPV have unique needs that should be addressed
during treatment.

Limitations ofthe Research

Due to the small sample size and qualitative nature of this study, the
present findings cannot be generalized to the larger population nor do
they allow for group comparisons (e.g., men versus women). The use of
qualitative methods also precludes interpreting causality based on the
results. Participants were mainly Caucasian and all were heterosexual;
future research should thus explore resiliency and protective factors
among racial, ethnic, and sexual minority groups. This study was based
on a voluntary, self-selected population and therefore not representative
of the demographics of the general population of California or the United

Suzuki, Geffner, and Bucky 119

States. Finally, this study depended upon the participants’ recollection of
events from their childhood; such retrospective recall could result in
memory biases or inaccuracies.

Strengths of the Research

Despite the limitations, this study enhanced the current literature
pertaining to resilience. More specifically, this research explored the pro-
tective factors associated with resilience among adults exposed to IPV as
children. To date, there are few, if any, studies that specifically investi-
gated protective factors associated with resilience in this population. Most
research in this area has examined resilience with individuals exposed to a
variety of other adversities and traumas, such as maltreated or at-risk
children (Werner & Smith, 2001).

To date, the information about the long-term effects of exposure to IPV
in later adulthood has focused on negative trajectories, such as the inter-
generational cycle of violence (Delsol & Margolin, 2004). Margolin
(2005) suggested that future research investigate individuals who experi-
ence alternative developmental pathways. The present study investigated
individuals who had positive outcomes despite being exposed to IPV and
examined the protective factors they identified that contributed to their
resilience. The findings of this qualitative research provide areas of focus
for future research.

SUGGESTIONS FOR EUTURE RESEARCH

The present findings provide a foundational component to under-
standing this phenomenon, and future research may provide a more
comprehensive awareness of resilience in this population. Future quali-
tative research should explore the key resilience and protective factors
present in more racially, ethnically, and sexually diverse populations.
In addition, the major and minor themes that emerged in this study
should be tested quantitatively with a larger sample to examine
whether the protective factors identified will hold up in other adults
exposed to IPV as children. Finally, once the validity of these themes
has been more established, it will be important to develop and imple-
ment therapeutic techniques that utilize and enhance these factors
among individuals from a variety of different adverse experiences in
childhood.

120 JOURNAL OF EMOTIONAL ABUSE

NOTE

1. It should be noted that two of the protocols in the current study may be invalid due
to inflated scores on the DAPS’ validity scales. Peter had an elevated score on the negative
bias scale, suggesting that he presented himself in an overly symptomatic way (T-score = 88).
Lydia had an elevated T-score on the positive bias scale, suggesting that she responded in
a defensive manner (T-score = 100+). While the normative sample of the DAPS was com-
parable in ethnicity and race to the larger population (Briere, 2001), it is important to note
that the two invalid profiles in this study were from Latino and African-American partici-
pants. It is uncertain if this measure is culturally sensitive and to date there is no informa-
tion about the validity of the DAPS with ethnic or racial groups. However, data from these
two participants were included in the study despite the elevated validity scores because the
results from the PAS indicated that they were most likely not experiencing any clinical
problems.

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