1 and 2

Assignment 1

To complete this assignment, please review the course text and the article “

Identifying and Training Adaptive Cross-Cultural Management Skills: The Crucial Role of Cultural Metacognition

”. In addition, watch the videos

Workplace Relationships: Playing Your Part (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.

and

Diversity in the Workplace: Playing Your Part (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.

. Next, research for answers to the following questions in your required sources and on the Internet. Be sure to validate that the sources you use are credible. Also, keep a list of the sources you use to include at the bottom of your posting, so others can access them as well.

Click

here (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.

to view the Evaluating Sources for Credibility video. [

Transcript available (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.

located under More option].

Analyze and discuss the following questions about cross-cultural and diversity training and share your findings with your classmates.

What are some of the training and development challenges associated with high employee turnover?
Why should a task analysis be performed to address the specific content addressed in a diversity training program?
Why would it be important to participate in a cross-cultural training before a business trip out of the country or an international assignment?

What are some critical success factors for these programs?
Do you have any personal experiences with diversity and/or cross-cultural training? If so, please share about your experience(s). If you do not, what reasons do you think that your past work experiences did not include such activities?
How important do you think this type of training is for you personally? What areas do you feel would be crucial for you to personally develop?

Your initial post should be between 350 and 400 words.

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https://fod.infobase.com/OnDemandEmbed.aspx?token=52672&wID=100753&plt=FOD&loid=0&w=640&h=360&fWidth=660&fHeight=410

Assignment 2

To be effective, a company must learn to motivate its employees to efficiently and effectively meet the goals of the organization. After reading Chapter 6 in your text, the article “

Person-Organization Fit, Family Supportive Organization Perceptions

,” and watching the required videos, discuss the following:

Explain the difference between content theories of motivation and process theories of motivation. Why is it important to understand the differences?
Explain, in your own words (using citations), why motivation is suggested to affect individual performance and organizational outcomes.
Propose at least three strategies to motivate others in the workplace. Include an explanation of the theories that support our suggestions about why these would be productive options.

Note that extrinsic and intrinsic motivation are types of motivation and should not be presented as theories, but as variables within a theory.
Lastly, the text suggests that pay is not usually the driving factor in job satisfaction, but can prevent job dissatisfaction. Based on your reading this week, analyze and explain why you think this is and discuss the pros and cons of using financial incentives in the workplace that are discussed in your text?

Your initial post should be between 300 and 400 words.

PERSON–ORGANIZATION FIT, FAMILY-SUPPORTIVE
ORGANIZATION PERCEPTIONS, AND SELF-EFFICACY

AFFECT WORK–LIFE BALANCE

JEE YOUNG SEONG
Chonbuk National University

I investigated the effects of person–organization (PO) fit, family-supportive organization
perceptions (FSOP), and self-efficacy on work–life balance (WLB), using a sample of 765
employees of a Korean manufacturing company. Participants completed measures of PO fit,
FSOP, self-efficacy, and WLB. Results revealed a main effect of PO fit on WLB, and a 3-way
interaction among PO fit, self-efficacy, and FSOP as predictors of WLB. In terms of practical
implications, my results suggest that WLB can be improved by enhancing PO fit, FSOP, and
self-efficacy. Further implications for research and practice are discussed.

Keywords: person–organization fit, work–life balance, self-efficacy, family-supportive
organization perceptions.

In this study, I examined issues related to balancing work with one’s home
life, in order to explore the effect of person–organization (PO) fit on individual
outcomes. To my knowledge, this is a new approach to investigating the
interactive cognitive mechanisms through which PO fit exerts its influence
on work–life balance. PO fit is defined as “compatibility between individuals
and the organization that occurs when (a) at least one party provides what the
other needs, and/or (b) both share similar fundamental characteristics” (Kristof,
1996, pp. 4–5). Past researchers have provided varying definitions of work–life
balance (WLB; e.g., Greenhaus, Collins, & Shaw, 2003; Kirchmeyer, 2000;
Lewis, Rapoport, & Gambles, 2003); however, in this study I focused on that of
Kirchmeyer (2000), that is, “achieving satisfying experiences in all life domains”

SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND PERSONALITY, 2016, 44(6), 911–922
© 2016 Scientific Journal Publishers Limited. All Rights Reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2016.44.6.

911

Jee Young Seong, Department of Business Administration, Chonbuk National University.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Jee Young Seong, Department of
Business Administration, Chonbuk National University, 567 Baekje-daero, Deokjin-gu, Jeonju-si,
Jeollabuk-do 54896, Republic of Korea. Email: sjylyk@jbnu.ac.kr

PERSON–ORGANIZATION FIT AND WORK–LIFE BALANCE912

(p. 81). Kirchmeyer also prescribed the characteristics of WLB, suggesting that
“it requires personal resources like energy, time, and commitment to be well
distributed across domains” (p. 81).

As self-efficacy and family-supportive organization perceptions (FSOP) play
significant roles in an employee’s perception of his/her organization and the
values it espouses, it is imperative to study how these factors moderate the
relationship between PO fit and WLB. Thus, my aim in the present study was to
extend the literature by proposing and testing the three-way interaction among
PO fit, self-efficacy, and FSOP in regard to predicting WLB.

Literature Review and Hypotheses Development

Person–Organization Fit and Work–Life Balan

Researchers of PO fit have suggested that when employees’ values match

those of the organization, positive outcomes, such as greater job satisfaction,
work commitment, and job choice, can be attained (Han, Chiang, McConville,
& Chiang, 2015; Kristof-Brown, Zimmerman, & Johnson, 2005; Oh et al., 2014;
Swider, Zimmerman, & Barrick, 2015). Fit research theorists have observed that
PO fit correlates with a sense of subjective well-being (Dawis & Lofquist, 1984),
including such aspects as psychological strain (French, Caplan, & Van Harrison,
1982), boredom (Edwards & Van Harrison, 1993), and self-esteem (Hyland,
1987). This suggests that there will be a positive relationship between PO fit and
WLB. As such, employees who perceive that they fit well with their organization
may have a sense of balance between their work and life, making them more
comfortable with their work setting. Given these theoretical considerations, I
advanced the following hypothesis:
Hypothesis 1: Person–organization fit will be positively related to work–life
balance.

Family-Supportive Organization Perceptions and Self-Efficacy as Moderators
of the Relationship Between Person–Organization Fit and Work–Life Balance

Bandura (1986) defined self-efficacy as “people’s judgments of their capabilities
to organize and execute courses of action required to attain designated types of
performances,” (p. 391) and stated that it has an influence on the relationship
between PO fit and WLB. Further, self-efficacy “is concerned not with the
skills one has but with judgements of what one can do with whatever skills one
possesses” (Bandura, 1986, p. 391). Thus, employees with high, compared to
low, self-efficacy are more likely to feel a better fit with their organization. More
specifically, the relationship between PO fit and WLB may be moderated by
self-efficacy because employees with high self-efficacy may perceive that they
have better balance between work and life, causing them to be more confident in

PERSON–ORGANIZATION FIT AND WORK–LIFE BALANCE 913

their perceptions of both their job and their life in general. The rationale for this
proposition can be found in the applied psychology literature, with Markman and
Baron (2003) showing that adaptive human functioning is motivated, regulated,
and directed by the ongoing exercise of self-efficacy.

Family-supportive organization perceptions (FSOP), which are defined as
“the global perceptions that employees form regarding the extent to which
the organization is family-supportive” (Allen, 2001, p. 416), play a significant
role in the positive relationship between PO fit and WLB. The underpinning
mechanism of this influence is social exchange theory (Blau, 1964; Cropanzano
& Mitchell, 2005) in which the obligation, attachment, and identification that
employees feel toward their organization are emphasized (e.g., Aryee, Chu, Kim,
& Ryu, 2013; Bagger & Li, 2014). Social exchange relationships involve the
exchange of socioemotional benefits derived from close personal attachment.
Individuals forming social exchange relationships with the organization tend to
produce more favorable outcomes than do other individuals, such as better job
performance, greater work commitment, and more organizational citizenship
behavior (e.g., Wayne, Shore, Bommer, & Tetrick, 2002).

People who perceive that they are supported by their organization feel that they
have a better balance between work and life (e.g., Beauregard & Henry, 2009;
Breaugh & Frye, 2008). More specifically, WLB is perceived to be better when
an organization supports employees by using family-supportive policies and
systems. One of the major contributors to the feeling of balance in life is one’s
family, so family-supportive systems strengthen and enhance employees’ overall
WLB. Moreover, the perception that work and life are balanced may be felt
more strongly by employees whose values are congruent with those expressed
in organizational policies. Finally, I believed that self-efficacy would moderate
the relationship between PO fit and WLB because the interaction between PO
fit and self-efficacy would be stronger when FSOP was high than when it was
low. Therefore, PO fit would be more likely to occur in those who have a higher,
vs. lower, level of FSOP, and in those who have a higher, vs. lower, level of
self-efficacy. Thus, I formed the following hypothesis:
Hypothesis 2: The three-way interaction among person–organization fit,
self-efficacy, and family-supportive organization perceptions will predict work–
life balance, in such a way that when self-efficacy and family-supportive
organization perceptions are both high, person–organization fit will have the
strongest positive relationship with work–life balance.

Method

Participants and Procedure
Data were collected from a manufacturing company in Korea between July and

PERSON–ORGANIZATION FIT AND WORK–LIFE BALANCE91

August in 2009. With the permission of the chief executive officer and human
resource management department, I surveyed team members using paper surveys
that included measures of PO fit perception, self-efficacy, FSOP, and WLB. Of
the 1,500 employees of the company, 1,143 completed the survey (response rate
76.2%). After excluding responses with missing data on key variables, the total
usable sample size was reduced to 765 (Mage = 33.4 years, SD = 5.5), of whom
92.5% were men and 7.5% were women. The distribution of level of education
among the participants was as follows: 2-year college = 7.1%, 4-year college =
62.1%, and graduate college = 30.8%. In terms of organizational tenure, 62.4%
had worked for the company for less than 5 years, 21.7% for between 5 and 10
years, and 15.9% for more than 10 years.

Measures
Responses to all measures were made on a 7-point Likert-type scale (1 =

strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree). All scales showed acceptable internal
consistency.

Person–organization fit. PO fit was measured using the three-item scale
developed by Cable and DeRue (2002). A sample item is “My organization’s
values and culture provide a good fit with the things that I value in life.”
Cronbach’s alpha reliability of the scale was .95 in this study.

Self-efficacy. Chen, Gully, and Eden’s (2001) eight-item measure was used
to assess self-efficacy. A sample item is “I am confident that I can perform
effectively on many difficult tasks.” Cronbach’s alpha reliability of the scale was
.95 in this study.

Family-supportive organization perceptions. FSOP were measured with
five items sourced from Allen (2001). A sample item is “Employees at this
organization are given ample opportunity to perform both their job and their
personal responsibilities well.” Cronbach’s alpha reliability of the scale was .73
in this study.

Work–life balance. WLB was measured using four items taken from Brett and
Stroh (2003). A sample item is the following reverse-coded statement: “I feel
that my job negatively affects my psychological well-being.” Cronbach’s alpha
reliability of the scale was .83 in this study.

Control variables. Gender, age, level of education (e.g., Seong & Kristof-Brown,
2012), and organizational tenure (e.g., Seong, Park, & Yun, 2008) were included
as control variables.

Results

The descriptive statistics of the relationships among the study variables are
displayed in Table 1.

PERSON–ORGANIZATION FIT AND WORK–LIFE BALANCE 91

Table 1. Means, Standard Deviations, and Correlations Among Study Variables

Variables M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1. Age 33.44 5.54
2. Gender 1.10 0.77 -.10**
3. Level of education 3.24 0.57 .14** -.00
4. Organization tenure 5.96 4.94 .64** -.01 -.08*

5. PO fit 5.35 0.93 .12** -.06 -.04 .09* (.95)
6. Self-efficacy 5.73 0.74 .17** -.03 .06 .08* .53** (.95)
7. FSOP 4.98 0.97 .02 -.02 -.07 .02 .33** .31** (.73)
8. WLB 4.26 1.13 -.02 -.01 -.07 .00 .29** .39** .41** (.83)

Note. N = 765. Reliability coefficients appear in parentheses along the main diagonal. PO fit =
person–organization fit, FSOP = family-supportive organization perceptions, WLB = work–life
balance. * p < .05, ** p < .01.

Data Analysis
Measurement model testing. Prior to testing the hypotheses, I checked the

empirical distinctiveness of the measures with a series of analyses conducted
using AMOS version 23.0. The analyses included a confirmatory factor analysis
(CFA) of the measures of PO fit, WLB, self-efficacy, and FSOP. The four-factor
CFA demonstrated acceptable fit with the data, 2(df = 176) = 415.90, p < .001 (comparative fit index = .97, Tucker-Lewis index =. 97, root mean square error of approximation = .049), confirming the expected underlying factor structure. All indicators were significantly related to their corresponding latent factors (p < .001).

Hypothesis testing 1: Main effect. I used the standardized coefficients
reported in the model to evaluate the specific hypotheses. The standardized path
coefficient for the relationship between PO fit and WLB was positive ( = .08, p
< .05), thus supporting Hypothesis 1 (see Table 2).

Table 2. Standardized Regression Coefficients of Work–Life Balance

Step Variables Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4

Step 1 Age .00 -.05 -.05 -.05
Gender -.01 -.00 .00 -.00
Level of education -.07 -.05 -.06 -.06
Organizational tenure -.01 -.01 -.01 -.01

Step 2 PO fit .08* .09* .07
Self-efficacy .19*** .19*** .17***

FSOP .32*** .32*** .29***

Step 3 PO fit × Self-efficacy .04 .05
PO fit × FSOP .11** .10**

Self-efficacy × FSOP -.01 .01

PERSON–ORGANIZATION FIT AND WORK–LIFE BALANCE916

Table 2 continued

Step Variables Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4

Step 4 PO fit × Self-efficacy × FSOP .09*

F .91 29.22*** 22.37*** 20.85***

R2 .01 .22 .23 .24
ΔF .91 66.65*** 5.24*** 4.56*

ΔR2 .01 .21 .02 .01

Note. N = 765. PO fit = person–organization fit, FSOP = family-supportive organizational perceptions.
* p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001.

Hypothesis testing 2: Three-way interaction. The results of the hierarchical
regression analyses supported Hypothesis 2 (see Table 2), showing that the
three-way interaction among perceived PO fit, FSOP, and self-efficacy was
positively associated with WLB ( = .09, p < .05). To interpret these relationships, I constructed plots of the three-way interaction from the models with significant effects. Following Aiken and West (1991), one standard deviation above and below the mean on the independent variables were plotted, holding the control variables at their means, to determine if the two-way interaction of PO fit perceptions and self-efficacy is stronger when FSOP is high than when it is low. Separate graphs were drawn of the two-way interactions at high (Figure 1) and low (Figure 2) levels of FSOP, and simple slopes analyses and slopes contrast tests were then performed. The results of these analyses further supported Hypothesis 2.

W
or

k–
li

fe
b

al
an

Person–organization fit

Low High

5.5

4.5

Self-efficacy low

Self-efficacy high

Figure 1. Three-way interaction effects on work–life balance: Person–organization fit is
moderated by self-efficacy when there are high levels of family-supportive organization
perceptions.

PERSON–ORGANIZATION FIT AND WORK–LIFE BALANCE 917

Discussion

In this study, I investigated the relationship between PO fit and WLB and found
that the two variables were significantly related, and that there was a three-way
interaction among PO fit, self-efficacy, and FSOP on WLB. As shown in Figures
1 and 2, the relationship between PO fit and WLB was much stronger when
self-efficacy was high than when it was low. The interaction between PO fit and
self-efficacy was stronger when FSOP was high than when it was low, which
implies that perceived PO fit encourages employees to consider the support
offered by the organization as particularly relevant to their family issues. Further,
the distinction between self-efficacy and FSOP helps to clarify how individuals
use self-efficacy in their perceptions of WLB. In this study, I have linked PO fit
with employees’ self-efficacy and FSOP concerns in a framework that can be
used to demonstrate how these managerial issues may influence WLB.

Theoretical Implications

The findings in the current study contributes to the literature on both PO fit
and WLB, extending the theoretical underpinnings (e.g., attraction–selection–
attrition theory, social identity theory, and the similarity-attraction paradigm)
that have been previously introduced to explain how PO fit leads to individual
outcomes (Chatman, 1991; Kristof-Brown et al., 2005; Seong & Kristof-Brown,
2012) by integrating self-efficacy and social exchange theory to provide a
theoretical basis for the boundary conditions that strengthen the relationship
between fit and WLB. In this respect, in the current study I have also extended

W
or
k–
li
fe
b
al
an
ce
Person–organization fit
Low High
5
4.5
4

3.5

Self-efficacy low
Self-efficacy high

Figure 2. Three-way interaction effects on work–life balance: Person–organization fit
moderated by self-efficacy when there are low levels of family-supportive organization
perceptions.

PERSON–ORGANIZATION FIT AND WORK–LIFE BALANCE918

the literature by confirming that there is an effect of PO fit on WLB, which has
not previously been fully examined, but is increasingly important because of
the trend of adoption of practices that promote WLB. Further research on PO fit
and WLB is needed to provide more insight into how these variables manifest in
team situations, such as supervisor support factors (e.g., Bagger & Li, 2014) and
cooperative group norms (e.g., Gonzalez-Mulé, DeGeest, McCormick, Seong,
& Brown, 2014), as well as in relation to individual and organizational factors.

Practical Implications
The results of this study have practical implications for organizations that

intend to adopt family-supportive or related systems, as well as training programs
for self-efficacy to stimulate PO fit. Whereas the majority of prior fit research
has been focused on Western cultures, in this study I examined fit in an Eastern
cultural context (e.g., Chuang, Hsu, Wang, & Judge, 2015; Seong, Kristof-Brown,
Park, Hong, & Shin, 2015). Traditionally, Korean society has been characterized
by a collectivistic cultural orientation, which places a strong emphasis on the
family. My results in this study suggest that culturally relevant human resource
management practices, including family-supportive practices, are highly effective
for positive individual outcomes when they are combined with individual factors,
such as self-efficacy. Such practices facilitate and strengthen PO fit, which is
a culturally contextualized concept that eventually leads to a higher level of
WLB. By linking PO fit, self-efficacy, and FSOP, in the present study I explicitly
identified and examined a mechanism that explains how PO fit and WLB can be
mutually reinforcing. In a practical sense, and consistent with prior research (e.g.,
Chuang et al., 2015; Lee & Ramaswami, 2013), my findings have implications
for how managers can foster PO fit, thereby helping employees to feel that they
have a balance between work and life. By adopting organizational policies and
training programs that enhance self-efficacy, organizations can guide employees
to increase their level of WLB.

Limitations and Suggestions for Future Research
The findings of this study should be interpreted in the light of its limitations.

First, the data were collected at one point in time; thus, given the cross-sectional
design, causality cannot be inferred. Therefore, future researchers should
include longitudinal measurement of WLB in order to examine how employees’
perceptions impact on this over time. Another limitation is the potential risk of
common method bias as the data were collected using a single survey. Although
common method bias is unlikely to be of concern in this study because there were
significant two-way interactions and quadratic effects (Evans, 1985; Siemsen,
Roth, & Oliveira, 2010), future researchers should, nonetheless, collect data
from different sources. Second, the measurement of fit should be reexamined in

PERSON–ORGANIZATION FIT AND WORK–LIFE BALANCE 919

future studies. Because individuals have different inclinations when interpreting
their environments, various types of fit measures could be used, depending on
the purpose. My aim in this study was to examine the effects of employees’
perceptions of fit on their WLB, which meant that the concept of perceived fit
was suitable for use in this context. However, future researchers could consider
examining the effects of both perceived fit and objective fit simultaneously.

Conclusion
My findings contribute to research on PO fit and how self-efficacy and FSOP

affect WLB in organizational contexts. By examining this relationship from
individual and organizational perspectives, I have provided insight into how
employees form perceptions of fit, both as individuals (e.g., self-efficacy) and in
relation to their organizations (e.g., FSOP), to enhance their WLB.

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PERSON–ORGANIZATION FIT AND WORK–LIFE BALANCE922

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Identifying and Training
Adaptive Cross-Cultural

Management Skills:
The Crucial Role of

Cultural Metacognition

SHIRA MOR

Erasmus University

MICHAEL MORRIS
Columbia University

JOHANN JOH
London Business School

For managers, intercultural effectiveness requires forging close working relationships
with people from different cultural backgrounds (Black, Mendenhall, & Oddou, 1991).
Recent research with executives has found that higher cultural metacognition is
associated with affective closeness and creative collaboration in intercultural
relationships (Chua, Morris, & Mor, & 2012). However, little is known about the social
cognitive mechanisms that facilitate the performance of individuals who score high on
cultural metacognition. We propose that one important question for cross-cultural
research and training is identifying which metacognitive strategies enable successful
intercultural collaborations. We suggest that one such strategy is “cultural perspective
taking”— considering how another’s cultural background shapes their behavior in a
given context. We hypothesized that cultural perspective taking facilitates intercultural
coordination and cooperation, and that a manipulation that boosts cultural perspective
taking would be especially beneficial for individuals who score low in dispositional
cultural metacognition. We found support for the above hypotheses in five studies using
both quasi-field and experimental approaches. We discuss the implications of these
findings for literatures on expatriate managers, cross-cultural training, cultural
intelligence, and intercultural negotiations.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

“For him to have understood me would have
meant reorganizing his thinking . . . . giving

up his intellectual ballast, and few people are
willing to risk such a radical move.”

–Edward T. Hall

The globalization of business presses managers to
communicate, negotiate, and collaborate across
cultures (Adler & Gundersen, 2008; Boyacigiller &
Adler, 1991). Firms depend on informal coordina-
tion between managers located in different parts

We thank Adam Galinsky and Modupe Akinola for their help
with data collection for Study 3A. We are grateful to Daniel
Ames, E. Tory Higgins, Shirley Kopelman, Roy Chua, Krishna
Savani, and Aaron Wallen for providing their comments on
earlier drafts of this manuscript.

� Academy of Management Learning & Education, 2013, Vol. 12, No. 3, 453–475. http://dx.doi.org/10.5465/amle.2012.0202

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

453
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of the organization (Barnard, 1968). In global firms,
this requires intercultural collaboration. While ex-
patriate assignments can facilitate the transfer of
knowledge across borders, expatriates often face
difficulties in adjusting to the foreign culture
(Caruso, Epley, & Bazerman, 2006), which can result
in early termination of assignments (Graham,
1985). Other mechanisms for coordination in global
organizations are multinational teams and inter-
national alliances (Adler & Gundersen, 2008; By-
rne, 1993; Manz & Sims, 1987). Yet such structures
often run aground on the failure of managers from
different cultures and countries to work effectively
with one another (Earley & Gibson, 2002; Hagel &
Brown, 2005).

Firms have long sought employees with cross-
cultural capabilities but have not known how best
to select for them or develop them. Recently, man-
agement researchers integrated disparate insights
about relevant characteristics and capabilities un-
der the rubric of cultural intelligence (CQ; Earley &
Ang, 2003; Earley & Peterson, 2004; Ng, Van Dyne, &
Ang, 2009). Earley and Ang (2003) define cultural
intelligence as the capability of an individual to
function effectively in culturally diverse settings.
We suggest that cultural intelligence is an individ-
ual difference that can inform the field’s renewed
interest in cross-cultural research and training
programs (Black & Mendenhall, 1990; Mendenhall,
Stahl, Ehnert, Oddou, Osland, & Kuhlmann, 2004;
Rehg, Gundlach, & Grigorian, 2012). More specifi-
cally, the present research aims to bridge research
and practice by identifying specific social cogni-
tive strategies associated with cultural intelli-
gence, strategies that might be targeted by inter-
cultural training programs. We first highlight the
contribution of our approach to cross-cultural
training and past and ongoing research.

NOVEL APPROACH TO CROSS-CULTURAL
TRAINING AND RESEARCH

Our research offers a novel approach to cross-
cultural research and training by examining an
individual difference measure associated with in-

tercultural success and its associated social cog-
nitive mechanisms. We propose that this approach
can contribute to researchers and practitioners’ un-
derstanding of cross-cultural competency and
training in a number of ways. First, we look for
trainable strategies through a descriptive ap-
proach of identifying thought patterns associated
with an individual difference dimension that is
known to correlate with intercultural effectiveness.
Second, we examine social cognitive mechanisms
associated with intercultural performance. Third,
we examine intercultural performance in the con-
text of working in the home country, not just in
overseas assignments. Notably, in contrast to prior
training programs focused on teaching managers
culture-specific knowledge (Fowler & Blohm, 2004;
Mendenhall et al., 2004), we focus on general strat-
egies for dealing with cultural differences, not on
training specific to particular cultures. We intro-
duce our approach and hypotheses by first review-
ing the literature on cultural intelligence and the
specific role of cultural metacognition in promot-
ing intercultural performance.

CULTURAL METACOGNITION

Ang and Van Dyne (2008) have proposed four cen-
tral dimensions that foster cultural intelligence:
metacognitive, cognitive, motivational, and behav-
ioral. Our focus is on the first of these dimensions–
cultural metacognition. Metacognition is defined
as thinking about thinking, comprising the pro-
cesses of monitoring and adjusting one’s thoughts
and strategies as one learns new skills (Triandis,
1995). Cultural metacognition refers to an individ-
ual’s level of conscious cultural awareness and
executive processing during cross-cultural interac-
tions (Ang & Van Dyne, 2008). Thomas et al. (2008)
propose that this dimension is the core of cultural
intelligence.

Past researchers have found that intercultural
success is correlated with mindfulness and self-
awareness about cultural assumptions (Johnson,
Cullen, Sakano, & Takenouchi, 1996; LaBahn &
Harich, 1997). Those with high metacognitive cul-
tural intelligence (CQ) are consciously aware of
others’ cultural preferences before and during in-
teractions. They also question cultural assump-
tions and adjust their mental models during and
after interactions (Brislin, Worthley, & MacNab,
2006; Triandis, 2006). Other theorists of intercul-
tural competence have proposed similar infer-
ences as the signature of cultural metacognition

We suggest that cultural intelligence is
an individual difference that can inform
the field’s renewed interest in cross-
cultural research and training programs.

454 SeptemberAcademy of Management Learning & Education

(Klafehn, Banerjee, & Chiu, 2008; Thomas, 2006).
Evidence suggests that cultural metacognition de-
velops through reflection during intercultural ex-
periences (Ng et al., 2009), consistent with evidence
that reflection helps people fine-tune their as-
sumptions after experiences (Kolb & Kolb, 2005).

Although the construct of metacognition is new
in management research, it follows a tradition em-
phasizing the importance of self-awareness and
sensitivity toward others when adjusting to new
environments (Mendenhall & Oddou, 1985). Cogni-
tive psychologists characterize metacognition as
monitoring and adjusting one’s thoughts and strat-
egies as one learns new skills (Flavell, 1979). Ex-
panding this line of theorizing, Ang et al. (2007)
defined cultural metacognition as mental pro-
cesses directed at acquiring, comprehending, and
calibrating cultural knowledge. Researchers
(Klafehn, Banerjee, & Chiu, 2008) suggest that
metacognition in cultural domains increases inter-
cultural effectiveness by promoting (1) contextual-
ized thinking (i.e., heightened sensitivity to the fact
that individuals’ motivations and behaviors are
invariably shaped by the cultural contexts in
which they are embedded), and (2) cognitive flexi-
bility (i.e., discriminative use of mental schemas
and behavioral scripts when interacting across
cultures). The ability to think contextually and flex-
ibly about issues from a foreign counterpart’s per-
spective has been termed cultural perspective tak-
ing in the social psychology and negotiations
literature (Lee, Adair, & Seo, 2011). Thus, cultural
perspective taking may play a central role in the
inferences that enable individuals high in cultural
metacognition to interact effectively across
cultures.

IDENTIFYING AND TRAINING A
METACOGNITIVE STRATEGY

Recent research examining the role of cultural
metacognition in cross-cultural performance has
found that cultural metacognition is associated
with greater success in collaborating in intercul-
tural (but not intracultural) relationships (Chua et
al., 2012). However, past research has yet to iden-
tify which metacognitive strategies may facilitate
intercultural coordination. We propose that one
metacognitive strategy facilitating intercultural
coordination is considering how another person’s
cultural background may affect their response to a
situation—“cultural perspective taking” (Lee et al.,
2011). This thought process, while not foolproof,

generally heightens the accuracy of people’s ex-
pectations about a foreign counterpart’s intentions
and behaviors. Of course, it could be ineffective
when a counterpart’s actual intentions are oppo-
site to those typical of his group, but this is by
definition atypical. We argue that examining cog-
nitive processes that facilitate interpersonal accu-
racy among American managers is important to
investigate, as past research reveals that people
from individualistic cultures, compared to those
from collectivistic cultures, are less accurate in
assessing their counterparts’ interests (Gelfand &
Christakopoulou, 1999).

We explore whether inducing cultural perspec-
tive taking can improve effectiveness in working
with individuals from different cultures, critical to
organizational success. We expected that this in-
tervention would be particularly helpful for man-
agers who are low in cultural metacognition, ei-
ther by disposition or habit. We propose that
cultural perspective taking works like other forms
of perspective taking, in that imagining the world
from another’s person’s perspective (under specific
conditions) has been found to reduce some prob-
lematic patterns in social cognition, such as con-
firmation bias and stereotyping (Galinsky, 2002;
Galinsky & Moskowitz, 2000). Perspective taking
brings one’s self-experience closer to one’s repre-
sentation of the other person (Davis, Conklin,
Smith, & Luce, 1996). Hence, perspective takers are
more likely to see themselves as similar to the
other person (Galinsky, Ku, & Wang, 2005; Todd &
Burgmer, 2013). Related to this, perspective taking
can lead to mimicking the other person’s observed
or expected behavior (Bargh, Chen, & Burrows,
1996). In this way, perspective taking can help in
meshing or coordinating with another person (Ga-
linsky et al., 2005) and offers a unique advantage in
interpersonal coordination in comparison with
affective-based mechanisms such as empathy (Ga-
linsky, Maddux, Gilin, & White, 2008).

In line with past research and the propositions
we put forth above, we propose the following:
Hypothesis 1a: Cultural metacognition will be pos-

itively associated with intercul-
tural cooperation.

Hypothesis 1b: The relationship between cultural
metacognition and intercultural
cooperation will be mediated by
cultural perspective taking.

How would cultural perspective taking change a
manager’s negotiation strategy? Consider the case
of an American facing a counterpart from a col-

2013 455Mor, Morris, and Joh

lectivistic culture. Cross-cultural research finds
that collectivists favor cooperative, relationship-
preserving tactics, whereas individualists favor
competitive tactics and emphasize their own needs
(Markus & Kitayama, 1991). Culture influences nor-
mative beliefs about what is appropriate, what
others will do, and what others expect (Gelfand &
Dyer, 2000; Lytle, Brett, Barsness, Tinsley, & Jans-
sens, 1995). When Americans reflect on a collectiv-
istic counterpart’s beliefs and practices, they
should become more likely to adopt relational
goals and cooperative tactics themselves. Simi-
larly, prior research on perspective taking has
found that when taking the perspective of an out-
group member, individuals subsequently act more
consistently with the other group’s norms (Ku,
Wang & Galinsky, 2010). Thus, we propose the fol-
lowing predictions:
Hypothesis 2a: An intervention inducing cultural

perspective taking will promote in-
tercultural cooperation with collec-
tivistic counterparts.

Hypothesis 2b: The relationship between cultural
perspective taking and intercul-
tural cooperation will be mediated
by one’s relational goals toward
collectivistic counterparts.

Hypothesis 2c: The relationship between cultural
perspective taking and intercul-
tural cooperation will be mediated
by expectations about the rela-
tional goals of collectivistic
counterparts.

Extending past theory on cultural intelligence
and cultural metacognition, we further propose
that a cultural perspective-taking intervention
would have a larger positive impact on intercul-
tural cooperation decisions of individuals low on
cultural metacognitive tendencies.
Hypothesis 2d: Inducing cultural perspective tak-

ing would promote intercultural co-
operation more for individuals with
low habitual cultural metacogni-
tion than those with high habitual
cultural metacognition.

The Present Research

Although past research has examined perspective
taking broadly, few studies have experimentally
examined the role of cultural perspective taking in
promoting cross-cultural management skills, such
as facilitating intercultural collaboration and co-

operation in international teams, cross-cultural ne-
gotiations, or mixed-motive tasks. In extending
past research on cultural intelligence and cross-
cultural training, we contend that one important
cognitive tendency that managers with high levels
of metacognitive tendencies (high meta-CQ) en-
gage in is cultural perspective taking prior to and
during an intercultural interaction. More impor-
tant, we suggest that cultural perspective taking
tendencies can be temporarily heightened, and
thus, can be especially beneficial for managers
chronically low on cultural metacognitive
tendencies.

Methodological Approach

The methodological approach we employ to test
our hypotheses is adopted from social psychology
research and involves experimental inductions to
manipulate social cognitive processes, such as
cultural perspective taking. To examine the causal
relationships between our variables of interest, we
use an experimental design with samples of MBA
students and crowdsourcing participants by way
of Mechanical Turk. We chose to use Mechanical
Turk participants for our experimental designs
rather than undergraduate student samples to test
our hypotheses for a number of reasons. First, re-
cent research reveals that Mechanical Turk partic-
ipants are significantly more diverse than typical
American college samples (Buhrmester, Kwang, &
Gosling, 2011). Moreover, compared with a tradi-
tional university participant pool, crowdsourcing
respondents have more work experience, are often
older, and are more ethnically diverse (Behrend,
Sharek, Meade, & Wiebe, 2011). Thus, by examin-
ing our hypotheses using both individuals with
professional experience and MBA students’ sam-
ples, we believe that the social cognitive mecha-
nisms examined are shared among lay people as
well as managers, and thus, can be used to train
individuals in a diverse array of professional
settings.

OVERVIEW OF STUDIES

We examined our hypotheses in five studies,
which span from quasi-field settings to controlled
laboratory experiments. In the first, we examine
whether cultural metacognition among American
MBA students was associated with greater levels
of intercultural cooperation with different-culture
peers working together in international teams and

456 SeptemberAcademy of Management Learning & Education

whether this effect is explained by cultural
perspective-taking habits (Hyp 1a and Hyp 1b). In
our pilot study, we tested a cultural perspective-
taking (CPT) intervention—thinking about a Chi-
nese counterpart’s cultural values and beliefs—
prior to making a business decision to cooperate in
a mixed-motive business scenario. We examined
whether this intervention heightened individuals’
intercultural cooperation due to heightening inten-
tions to adopt a relational orientation (associated
with Chinese cultural values; Hyp 2a and Hyp 2b).
In Study 2, we investigate whether a cultural
perspective-taking intervention promoted Ameri-
can MBA students’ intercultural cooperation in the
same business scenario as the pilot study, but we
further examined whether this effect could also be
explained by expectations about the counterpart’s
relational goals (Hyp 2c). In Study 3A, we examine
whether inducing CPT in American MBAs prior to
engaging in intercultural negotiation with a Japa-
nese counterpart heightened MBA students’ expec-
tations that their Japanese counterpart would be
cooperative in an upcoming negotiation. We fur-
ther examined whether this intervention was more
beneficial for MBAs low on cultural metacognition
than high on cultural metacognition (Hyp 2d). In
Study 3B we provide a comprehensive test of Hy-
potheses 2c-2d in a unified design.

STUDY 1: CULTURAL METACOGNITION AND
INTERCULTURAL COOPERATION

The goal of Study 1 is to examine Hypotheses H1a
and H1b using a sample of American MBA students
studying in an American business school where
50% of the student population is composed of
international students. In this MBA program, inter-
cultural cooperation is needed to complete study-
related tasks, such as papers and class assign-
ments. To examine our predictions, we surveyed
entering students about their cultural metacogni-
tive tendencies. Two months subsequent to evalu-
ating students’ cultural metacognition tendencies,
we evaluated students’ cultural perspective-taking
and cooperation levels using ratings made by their
international peers who had been working with
them in multinational student teams for 2 months.
We hypothesized that MBA students’ cultural meta-
cognition would be positively associated with
different-culture peers’ evaluation of their cooper-
ative tendencies and that this effect would be ex-
plained by heightened cultural perspective-taking
tendencies.

Method

Participants and

Procedure

Two hundred American MBA students (Males �
58.5%; Mean Age � 27; 61.3% had managed at least
one employee in their previous jobs) were recruited
to fill out an on-line survey as a voluntary part of
their pre-MBA assignments (73% of incoming stu-
dents completed the survey). Students were pro-
vided a link to an on-line survey that asked about
their past work experiences abroad and their ex-
periences working in multicultural work environ-
ments—an environment where foreign national
students are equally represented as American
ones. The cultural intelligence measure was col-
lected as part of this survey. Upon arrival, students
were assigned to multinational learning teams of
5– 6 students. Teams were created to maximize
their cultural diversity and typically comprised of
three American students, one European student,
and two students from other world regions such as
Africa, South America, the Middle East, and East
Asia or South Asia. These teams assemble in MBA
student orientation and students spend the major-
ity of orientation activities and their first year of
classes working in teams. After 2 months in their
international teams, 305 international student
peers (from non-U.S. nationalities), representing 45
nationalities evaluated target American students
on a host of leadership-related measures as part of
a 360 leadership assessment. Each student was
evaluated by between 1 and 4 different-culture
peers with whom they worked. Student peers were
asked to anonymously appraise their team mem-
bers’ levels of cooperation and perspective-taking
tendencies when working in these teams as part of
their class assignment. Let us now describe the
measures in the study in more detail.

Measures

Cultural Metacognition

Incoming MBA students reported their cultural
metacognition tendencies using a 6-item scale de-
veloped by Van Dyne, Ang, Ng, Rockstuhl, Tan, and
Koh (2012). The items tap (1) cultural awareness
(e.g., “I am aware of how to use my cultural knowl-
edge when interacting with people from different
cultures”); (2) adjustment during intercultural inter-
actions (“I adjust my cultural knowledge while in-
teracting with people from a new or an unfamiliar
culture”); and (3) planning before intercultural in-
teractions (e.g., “I develop action plans for interact-

2013 457Mor, Morris, and Joh

ing with people from a different culture”; Scale
reliability: � � .82). We averaged students’ self-
reports on the six items to create a cultural meta-
cognition score for each student.

Cultural Perspective

Taking

After working 2 months in their international teams,
participants were evaluated by classmates from
other cultures with regard to their perspective-
taking habits. The items were the following: “S/he
is able to empathize and understand someone
else’s perspective”; “S/he misjudges people’s per-
sonality and character” [Reversed]; “S/he fails to
realize the impact of what s/he says and does on
others” [Reversed]; “S/he is good at assessing other
people’s strengths and weaknesses”; “S/he is good
at sensing what other people are thinking and
feeling” (Scale reliability: � � .83). We averaged
each rater’s evaluation of each target student on
these five items to create each rater’s cultural
perspective-taking score for the target student.

Intercultural Cooperation

Peers also evaluated target students on three
items that assessed American MBA students’ abil-
ity to work effectively in their international teams.
The items were the following: “She/he is able to
build effective working relationships with others
who have different opinions or interests” and
“She/he is able to build coalitions to get things
done” (Scale reliability: � � .65). We averaged each
rater’s evaluation of each target student on these
two items to create each rater’s intercultural coop-
eration score for the target student.

We conducted confirmatory factor analyses
(CFA) using structural equation modeling (LISREL
8.80) to ensure that the mediator and outcome vari-
able (cultural perspective taking and intercultural
cooperation) are distinct factors. Results indicate
that a 2-factor model where cultural perspective
taking and intercultural cooperation items load
into respective separate factors has a better fit to
the data (�2 � 35.15, df � 13, RMSEA � 0.08) than a
1-factor model (�2 � 35.16, df � 14, RMSEA � 0.09).

Control Variables

Dimensions of cultural intelligence other than cul-
tural metacognition, namely cognitive, motiva-
tional, and behavioral CQ, have been found to
predict intercultural cooperation tendencies (Imai
& Gelfand, 2010). As a result, we included these

scales’ control variables: cognitive CQ (� � .84),
motivational CQ (� � .86), and behavioral CQ
(� � .86).

Additionally, since student peer ratings of target
students’ cooperation levels may be influenced by
their levels of acquaintance with target students
outside of class assignments, we included raters’
familiarity with the target student as an additional
control variable (“how well do you know this per-
son?”, 1 � Not at all to 4 � extremely well).

Results and Discussion

Hypothesis 1a predicted that cultural metacogni-
tion would be positively associated with intercul-
tural cooperation. To test this hypothesis, we used
a hierarchical linear model (HLM) software to carry
out our analyses (Raudenbush, 2004). We ran a
linear HLM treating different-culture student peers
as nested within target American students, with
student-peer ratings as the dependent variable (at
Level 1) and cultural metacognition and the control
variables as Level 2 predictors. Table 1 reports the
results from the hierarchical linear model analy-
ses. Model 1 contains the control variables;
whereas Model 2 adds the predictor of cultural
metacognition. Analyses revealed that cultural

TABLE 1
Hierarchical Linear Model Regression on Student

Peers’ Ratings of Intercultural Cooperation
(Study 1)

Intercultural cooperation

Model 1 Model 2 Model 3

Key predictors
Cultural metacognition — 0.20* 0.06

(�0.09) (�0.07)
Cultural perspective

taking (mediator)
0.67**

(�0.04)
Control variables
Cognitive CQ 0.05 �0.01 0.01

(�0.07) (�0.08) (�0.06)
Motivational CQ 0.14� 0.09 0.12�

(�0.08) (�0.09) (�0.07)
Behavioral CQ �0.04 �0.07 �0.08

(�0.07) (�0.07) (�0.05)
Student peers familiarity 0.23** 0.26** 0.07

(0.10) (0.10) (0.08)
Intercept 4.23** 3.91** 1.10**

(0.46) (0.48) (0.41)

Note. CQ � cultural intelligence. Numbers in parenthesis are
standard errors. �p � .10, **p � .01, *p � .05.

458 SeptemberAcademy of Management Learning & Education

metacognition was positively associated with
peers’ evaluation of target students’ levels of coop-
eration in international teams, � � .20, SE � .09,
t(195) � 2.22, p � .05. Thus, the results supported
Hypothesis 1a.

Next, we examined whether cultural perspective-
taking tendencies mediated the relationship be-
tween cultural metacognition and intercultural
cooperation. To conduct mediational analyses (in
this study and follow-up studies), we followed
Baron and Kenny’s (1986) procedures as well as
carried out a bootstrapping test with 20,000 re-
samples using percentile bootstraps (Hayes, 2009).

Analyses revealed that cultural metacognition
(Level 2 predictor) was positively associated with
student peers’ evaluation of target students’ cul-
tural perspective-taking tendencies (Level 1 de-
pendent variable), � � .20, SE � .09, t(195) � 2.26,
p � .05. Second, when cultural metacognition and
cultural perspective taking (mediator) were both
entered into the HLM model as Level 2 predictors
(see Model 3), the effect of cultural metacognition
turned statistically nonsignificant, � � .06,
SE � .07, t � .90, p � .37; whereas the effect of
cultural perspective taking on intercultural coop-
eration remained statistically significant, � � .67,
SE � .04, t � 15.01, p � .001, suggesting mediation
(see Figure 1 for the full mediation model). A boot-
strapping test confirmed a positive indirect effect
of cultural metacognition on intercultural cooper-
ation by way of cultural perspective taking (95% CI
[.02, 25]). These results provide support for Hypoth-
esis 1b.

In summary, the results from Study 1 provide
evidence supporting our hypotheses that chroni-

cally high cultural perspective-taking tendencies
among American MBA students explain the rela-
tionship between metacognitive habits and suc-
cessful intercultural collaboration with different-
culture counterparts.

STUDY 2: CULTURAL
PERSPECTIVE-TAKING INTERVENTION

Although Study 1 provides the first empirical evi-
dence that the relationship between cultural meta-
cognition and intercultural cooperation is ex-
plained by cultural perspective-taking tendencies,
in Study 2, we examined one intervention for pro-
moting cultural perspective taking—reflecting
how the cultural background of one’s counterparts
may affect their approach to a mixed-motive con-
flict. This cognitively oriented intervention is dis-
tinct from affectively oriented interventions in past
work on intercultural collaboration (Chua et al.,
2012). We tested whether this cultural perspective-
taking intervention would shift participants’ deci-
sions, in this case, toward a relational, harmonious
approach congruent with Chinese norms (Hyp 2b)
in a Prisoners’ Dilemma scenario that was adapted
into a decision-making task in a business setting.

PILOT STUDY

Method

Participants and Procedures

For an initial test of the cultural perspective-taking
intervention, we recruited 107 American adults
(81.3% � White/Caucasian; 7.5% � Asian; 6.5% �

β =.20* β = .67***

β = .20*
(.06)

Cultural
Metacognition

Intercultural
Cooperation

Cultural
Perspective

Taking

FIGURE 1
Mediation Model Showing Cultural Perspective Taking Mediates the Relationship Between Cultural

Metacognition and Intercultural Cooperation (Evaluated by Different-Culture Peers; Study 1).
Note. Regression results are reported in unstandardized betas. * � p � .05, *** � p � .001.

2013 459Mor, Morris, and Joh

African American; 3.7% � Hispanic; 9% � Native
American; Female � 51%; Mean Age � 34, 28.1%
college students, 70.1% currently working) via Me-
chanical Turk for a study on problem solving. Par-
ticipants were randomly assigned to a cultural
perspective-taking condition or control condition.

Materials

Mixed Motive Conflict. Participants were asked to
read a scenario, a Prisoners’ Dilemma task pre-
sented as a conflict on an advertising campaign
between an American product manager and a Chi-
nese product manager, adapted from past research
(Greenhalgh & Bazerman, 2004; Ku et al., 2010).
Participants were first presented with the follow-
ing prompt about their role and objectives as
American managers:

You are Mr./Ms. Graham, the head of a prod-
uct management group in a consumer prod-
ucts firm based in the U.S., handling the mar-
keting of a new liquid dishwasher detergent.
As a manager, you are faced with a recurring
decision as to whether you should put on an
advertising campaign during the next sales
period. This campaign would provide con-
sumers with comparative information about
your Chinese competitor’s product: Li Hong.
The comparative advertising campaign will
describe the destructive impact of your com-
petitor’s product on a dishwasher’s motor,
spots left on the dishes, and/or its high cost.

Your objective is to maximize your profit.
This is also the objective of your Chinese
competitor, Li Hong. Profitability will also be
used as a way of measuring your success as a
manager. The profitability of your product de-
pends not only on your decision but also on
the decision of Li Hong. Specifically, if neither
you nor Li put on a derogatory advertising
campaign, each company will make $1 mil-
lion for the sales period. If one of you puts on
a comparative advertising campaign but the
competing company does not, then the com-
pany that advertises will have a profit of
$2 million for the sales period and the com-
petitor will lose $2 million. If both companies
advertise the deficiencies of their competi-
tor’s product, then total sales of liquid dish-
washer detergent will fall and both compa-
nies will lose $1 million for the sales period.

Participants were asked to decide whether to
embark on an advertising campaign disparaging a
Chinese product manager, Li Hong, who is selling
a similar product. Advertising was equivalent to
an aggressive, competitive response; whereas not
advertising was equivalent to cooperating. Partic-
ipants’ decision not to advertise was used as a
measure of intercultural cooperation.
Manipulation. Next, participants in the CPT condi-
tion were asked to think about their counterpart’s
culture before making their decision. Below is the
prompt they received:

Before you go on to make your decision, we
would like you to do the following: Please
write down a few sentences describing Li’s
(Chinese manager’s) interests and concerns
as a person living and working in China. . .
How would Li’s cultural values and beliefs
guide his behavior and decision in this
situation?

Business Decision. Next, participants were asked
to make their decision in the decision-making sce-
nario (advertise or not advertise).
Goals. After making their decision, participants
indicated in an open-ended response format what
guided their decision-making in the scenario. They
were presented with the following prompt:

Please write down a few sentences explain-
ing what guided your decision to advertise or
not advertise in the business case.

Two research assistants blind to the hypotheses
rated participants’ open-ended responses. Raters
evaluated participants’ decisions on the following
items: “The participant was interested in promot-
ing future business relations with Li”; “The partic-
ipant was interested in cooperating with Li”; “The
participant was interested in achieving the busi-
ness goal of maximizing profit/minimizing profit
loss” (Reversed); (1 � strongly disagree, 7 �
strongly agree; ICC � .80). The 3 items were aver-
aged to create a score for each participant (� � .89).
Manipulation Check. After making their decision,
participants indicated whether they thought about
Chinese cultural values while evaluating the sce-
nario. They rated their thought process on the fol-
lowing three items: “I tried to think what a Chinese
manager would do in this case”; “I thought about
Chinese business norms when making my deci-
sion”; “I thought about Chinese cultural values

460 SeptemberAcademy of Management Learning & Education

when making my decision.” Items averaged to cre-
ate a score for each participant (1 � not at all; 7 �
very much; � �. 87).
Control Variables. At the end of the study, partici-
pants reported their cultural intelligence (cultural
metacognition Van Dyne et al., 2012): � �.87; Cog-
nitive CQ: � �.80; Motivational CQ: � �. 80; Behav-
ioral CQ: � �. 87. As in Study 1, these four cultural
intelligence factors were included as control vari-
ables in our analyses.

Results

To test whether the CPT manipulation induced cul-
tural perspective taking in participants, we ran an
ANCOVA (between subjects factor: experimental
condition; covariates: 4 CQ factors) on the cultural
perspective-taking scores and found that partici-
pants reported thinking more about Chinese cul-
tural values and beliefs in the CPT condition
(M � 4.58) than the control condition (M � 3.32),
F(1,150) � 18.84, p � .001.

Hypothesis 2a proposed that cultural perspective
taking would promote cooperation with a different-
culture colleague. To test this, we regressed par-
ticipants’ choices to cooperate (advertise � com-
pete � 0; not advertise � cooperate � 1) on the
experimental condition (0 � Control, 1 � CPT),
controlling for the 4 CQ factors. Analyses revealed
a main positive effect of the manipulation on
choosing a cooperative strategy with a Chinese
counterpart, � � .93, SE � .48, Wald (1) � 3.73,
p � .05. Thus, the results supported Hypothesis 2a.

To examine whether the effect of the CPT inter-
vention on decisions runs through goals, we fol-
lowed Baron and Kenny’s (1986) steps for testing
mediation as well as a bootstrapping test (Hayes,
2009). We first examined the relationship between
the experimental condition and goals (controlling
for cultural intelligence factors) using multiple re-
gression analysis and found them to be positively
associated, � � .90, SE � .26, t(101) � 3.45, p � .01.
Then we conducted binary logistic analysis and
entered both the experimental condition and stu-
dents’ relational orientation scores as predictors of
choice to cooperate, controlling for cultural intelli-
gence factors. Analyses revealed that the effect of
the condition turned statistically nonsignificant,
� � �.58, SE � .78, Wald (1) � .55, p � .46; whereas
the effect of students’ relational scores remained a
significant predictor of choice to cooperate with Li,
� � 2.13, SE � .44, Wald (1) � 23.47, p � .001 sug-
gesting mediation (see Figure 2). A bootstrapping
test with 20,000 resamples confirmed a positive
indirect effect between CPT on students’ choice to
cooperate by way of intentions about adopting a
relational business orientation (95% CI [.31, 3.27]).
Thus, the results above provided support for Hy-
pothesis 2b. In sum, our pilot study revealed that a
cultural perspective-taking intervention increased
participants’ relational orientation toward a Chi-
nese counterpart and explained their decision to
cooperate with him. However, the question still
remains whether this heightened relational orien-
tation was the result of an increase in other–self
overlap associated with collectivistic cultural
values.

β = .90** β = 2.13**

β = .93*
(–.58)

Experimental
Condition

(0=Control;
1=CPT)

Intercultural
Cooperation

Relational Goals

FIGURE 2
Mediation Model Showing the Positive Casual Effect of Cultural Perspective Taking on Intercultural

Cooperation with a Chinese Counterpart Is Mediated by One’s Relational Goals (Study 2, Pilot Study).
Note. Regression results are reported in unstandardized betas. * � p � .05, ** � p � .01.

2013 461Mor, Morris, and Joh

STUDY 2: CULTURAL PERSPECTIVE-TAKING
INTERVENTION WITH MBA STUDENTS

In Study 2 we shifted to test our CPT intervention
with MBA students whose demographic character-
istics are more closely aligned with those of man-
agers. Moreover, we also explored participants’ ex-
pectations about their counterpart’s decision in the
mixed-motive conflict task, since much of past re-
search finds that cooperation in mixed-motive con-
flicts hinges on expectancies of the counterpart’s
cooperation (Wong & Hong, 2005). Accordingly, we
examined whether the association between cul-
tural perspective taking and cooperation hinges on
heightened expectancies of the Chinese counter-
part’s goal to cooperate (Hyp 2a and Hyp 2b).

Method
Participants and Procedures

Fifty-seven (Non-Chinese) MBAs (61.4% American1;
Males � 65%; Mean Age � 28) completed the study
as part of an in-class exercise. Seventy-two per-
cent of students identified as White/Caucasian,
21.1% Asian (non-Chinese), 3.5% Latin/Hispanic,
1.8% as African-American, and 3.5% as other eth-
nicities. Students were randomly assigned to a
CPT condition or control condition.

Materials

Mixed-Motive Conflict

Students were asked to read a business scenario,
which was a Prisoner’s Dilemma task presented as
an advertising task. The instructions and task
were presented in the same manner as in the pi-
lot study.

Manipulation

Next, participants in the CPT condition were asked
to think about their Chinese counterpart’s cultural
values before making their decision. The prompt
presented to MBA students was the same prompt
used in the pilot study.

Business Decision

Next, participants were asked to make their deci-
sion in the case (to advertise or not advertise).

Manipulation Check

After making their decision, participants indicated
whether they thought about Chinese cultural val-
ues while evaluating the case, which served as a
manipulation check using the following three
items: “I tried to think what a Chinese manager
would do in this case”; “I thought about Chinese
business norms when making my decision”; “I
thought about Chinese cultural values when mak-
ing my decision.” Items were averaged to create a
score for each participant (1 � not at all; 7 � very
much; � � .89).

Expectancies of Counterpart’s Cooperativeness

Next, participants rated their confidence that Li
would not advertise (i.e., cooperate) using a 7-
point scale (1 � not at all; 7 � very much; Wong &
Hong, 2005).

Control Variables

At the end of the study, participants completed a
cultural intelligence assessment (Cultural meta-
cognition; Van Dyne and colleagues, 2012): � � .73;
Cognitive CQ: � � .90; Motivational CQ: � � .79;
Behavioral CQ: � � .88.

RESULTS AND

DISCUSSION

To test whether the cultural perspective-taking
manipulation induced cultural perspective taking
in MBA students, we ran an ANCOVA (between
subjects factor: experimental condition; covariates:
4 CQ factors) on the cultural perspective-taking
scores and found that students reported more
thoughts about counterparts’ cultural values and
beliefs in the cultural perspective-taking condition
(M � 5.49) than the control condition (M � 4.17), F
(1,57) � 14.27, p � .001.

Hypothesis 2a suggested that inducing cultural
perspective taking would promote cooperation
with a counterpart from a culture known for coop-
erative relational norms. To test this prediction, we
conducted a binary logistic regression regressing
students’ choice to cooperate (advertise � com-
pete � 0; not advertise � cooperate � 1) on the

1 Preliminary analysis revealed that students’ cultural back-
grounds (American vs. non-American students) did not reveal
differential effects on their responses to the manipulation and
their decision to cooperate in the case, and thus, we retained
both American and non-American students in the sample.

462 SeptemberAcademy of Management Learning & Education

experimental condition (0 � Control, 1 � CPT),
controlling for cultural intelligence factors. Analy-
ses revealed a positive main effect of CPT on in-
tercultural cooperation, � � 1.43, SE � .63, Wald (1)
� 5.23, p � .05. These results supported Hypothesis
2a, replicating the results from the pilot study with
MBA students and revealing that cultural perspec-
tive taking had a direct positive effect on intercul-
tural cooperation.

Hypothesis 2b further suggested that the rela-
tionship between CPT and intercultural coopera-
tion would be mediated by expectations about the
counterpart’s cooperativeness. To test this predic-
tion, we first examined the relationship between
the experimental condition and expectations about
the counterpart’s cooperativeness (the mediator).
Multiple regression analysis revealed that the CPT
condition had a positive main effect on expecta-
tions that the counterpart would cooperate
(� � 1.37, SE � .52, t � 2.62, p � .05). When both
experimental condition and expectations about the
counterpart’s cooperativeness were entered as pre-
dictors of cooperation in a logistic regression
model, the relationship between the experimental
condition and intercultural cooperation turned sta-
tistically nonsignificant (� � .95, SE � .69, Wald (1)
� 1.86, p � .17), while expectations about Li’s co-
operation remained a significant predictor of inter-
cultural cooperation (� � .47, SE � .18, Wald (1)
� 7.19, p � .01), suggesting mediation (see Figure
3). A bootstrapping test confirmed there was a pos-
itive indirect effect between CPT on intercultural
cooperation via expectations about Li’s coopera-
tiveness (95% CI [.01, 1.84]).

These results reveal that the cultural perspective-
taking manipulation increased MBA students’ co-
operation with a Chinese counterpart, and this ef-
fect was explained by their heightened
expectations that their counterpart—Li Hong—
would cooperate as well. Thus, the results sup-
ported Hypotheses H2a and H2b and suggest that
one useful intervention for promoting managers’
cross-cultural working relations with collectivistic
counterparts is asking them to reflect about their
counterpart’s values and beliefs prior to meeting
them. Moreover, we find that CPT also increases
expectations that one’s counterpart holds rela-
tional, cooperative goals when making his or her
decision. Overall, it appears that reflection prior to
intercultural interaction facilitates overlap be-
tween MBA students’ and their counterparts’ cul-
tural values and goals.

STUDY 3A: CULTURAL PERSPECTIVE TAKING
AND INTERCULTURAL NEGOTIATIONS

Although Study 2 revealed a causal positive rela-
tionship between cultural perspective taking and
intercultural cooperation, in Study 3A, we exam-
ined this intervention as a preparation for an in-
ternational negotiation between an American

β = 1.37*

β = 1.43*

β = .47**

(.95)

Experimental
Condition
(0=Control;
1=CPT)
Intercultural
Cooperation

Expectation
about

counterpart’s
relational goals

FIGURE 3
Mediation Model Showing the Positive Effect of Cultural Perspective-Taking Condition on Intercultural
Cooperation Is Mediated by Expectations That the Chinese Counterpart Holds Relational Goals (Study 2).

Note. Regression results are reported in unstandardized betas. * � p � .05; ** � p � .01

Overall, it appears that reflection prior to
intercultural interaction facilitates
overlap between MBA students’ and their
counterparts’ cultural values and goals.

2013 463Mor, Morris, and Joh

manager and a Japanese counterpart. In this con-
text, we examined American MBA students’ expec-
tations about their counterpart’s cooperative ver-
sus competitive orientation in an upcoming
negotiation. Expectations about the counterpart’s
orientation should be associated with students’ de-
cisions to cooperate, as past research on negotia-
tions has found that expectations greatly influence
strategic decisions about concessions to make and
information to provide or withhold from one’s coun-
terpart (Earley & Mosakowski, 2000). We also fur-
ther explored whether a cultural perspective inter-
vention produced greater benefits (e.g., increased
expectation about counterpart’s cooperativeness)
for MBA students low on metacognition than those
high metacognition individuals. In other words, we
expected that culture-specific cues would lead in-
dividuals low on cultural metacognition to modify
their expectations about their counterpart’s goals,
leading to greater levels of intercultural coopera-
tion in this task.

Method
Procedure

Seventy-six American MBA students (Males � 56%;
Mean Age � 27) participated in a negotiation ex-
ercise in their first semester of school as part of an
in-class exercise in a leadership class. Upon be-
ginning their MBA program, the American MBA
students reported their cultural metacognition lev-
els in an orientation survey (using the same
method as in Study 1). Two months later (as part of
an in-class exercise) the students were asked to
complete a prenegotiation survey prior to a nego-
tiation with a Japanese counterpart over the man-
ufacturing of “mini” excavators (Patel & Brett,
2007). Participants were not aware of any cultural
elements in the exercise or the fact that the prene-
gotiation survey was intended to assess their pro-
clivity toward working with a different-culture
counterpart. Since students later carried out the
negotiation in teams, we only examined their ex-

pectations about their counterpart’s cooperation
prior to the negotiation. Students were randomly
assigned to either a cultural perspective-taking
manipulation or a control condition.

Materials

Cultural Intelligence

Two months prior to the negotiation exercise, stu-
dents completed the 4-factor cultural intelligence
assessment described in the previous studies (cul-
tural metacognition: � � .80; Cognitive CQ: � � .80;
Motivational CQ: � � .85; Behavioral CQ: � � .86).
The four CQ factors were included as control vari-
ables in all of the following analyses.

Negotiation Exercise

Upon arriving to class, students received their ne-
gotiation roles and were asked to read the materi-
als prior to completing their prenegotiation sur-
veys. The negotiation case involved a negotiation
between two companies, Abhas and Bussan (rep-
resented by Sato-san), over the manufacturing of
“mini” excavators, and the case materials in-
cluded five issues. All American students were
assigned to the Abhas role. The case contained
background information about the Japanese com-
pany and Sato-san (the Japanese negotiator).

Cultural Perspective-Taking Manipulation

Prior to the negotiation, students were provided a
link to an on-line survey where they were asked to
predict their Japanese counterpart’s orientation in
the upcoming negotiations. Students in the CPT
condition received the following information be-
fore making their predictions about their Japanese
counterpart (Students in the control received no
prompt).

Before you go on to guess Sato-san’s (Japa-
nese counterpart from the Bussan company)
priorities and goals in the negotiations, we
would like you to do the following: Please
take a few moments to think about the per-
spective of Sato-san negotiating on behalf of
a company operating in Japan. Try to imagine
what Sato-san would be thinking and what
may be her/his interests and concerns based
on the fact that she/he is negotiating on be-
half of a company operating in Japan. Try

In other words, we expected that culture-
specific cues would lead individuals low
on cultural metacognition to modify their
expectations about their counterpart’s
goals, leading to greater levels of
intercultural cooperation in this task.

464 SeptemberAcademy of Management Learning & Education

your best to put yourself in Sato-san’s shoes.
Please write down a few sentences describ-
ing Sato-san’s interests and concerns about
the five case issues as a Japanese negotiator.

Expectancy of Counterpart’s Cooperativeness

Next, students were asked to predict the orienta-
tion of their Japanese counterpart during the up-
coming negotiation using the following categories:
(1) Cooperative, (2) Competitive, or (3) Don’t Know.
All other responses (competitive or don’t know)
were coded as 0.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

We conducted a logistic regression analysis exam-
ining the effects of the experimental condition on
MBA students’ expectations that their Japanese
counterpart would be cooperative in the upcoming
negotiation. Analyses revealed no main effect of
condition, � � .27, SE � .26, Wald (1) � 1.11, p � .29.
Next, we examined whether the intervention had a
stronger effect for individuals with a low baseline
proclivity toward cultural metacognition. To test
this prediction, we used binary logistic regression
and tested for an interaction between cultural
metacognition and the experimental condition on
perceptions of cooperativeness. Analyses revealed
a significant 2-way interaction between cultural
metacognition and the experimental condition on
expectation that Japanese counterpart would coop-
erate, � � �0.84, SE � .39, Wald (1) � 4.71, p � .05.
Simple slope analysis following procedures by Ai-

ken, West, and Reno (1991) revealed that MBAs low
on cultural metacognition when asked to reflect on
their Japanese counterpart’s values and behaviors
were more likely to expect their Japanese counter-
part would be cooperative (CPT condition) than not
(control condition), � � 1.80, SE � .80, Wald (1)
� 5.10, p � .05 (see Figure 4). At the same time, the
CPT for MBAs high on cultural metacognition
did not alter their (already moderately high) expec-
tations about their Japanese counterpart’s cooper-
ativeness, � � �0.75, SE � .73, Wald (1) � 1.07,
p � .30 (see Figure 4). The patterns depicted in
Figure 4 further suggest that individuals low on
cultural metacognition did not simply regress to-
ward the mean in their expectations about their
partner, but rather more closely matched the pre-
dictions of individuals high on cultural
metacognition.

Although the manipulation did not have a main
effect on expectancies, there was an interaction
effect: Individuals habitually low in cultural meta-
cognition were prompted by the manipulation to
think about their Japanese counterpart’s coopera-
tiveness more than they did in the control condi-
tion; whereas individuals high in cultural meta-
cognition were not pushed to think more than they
did in the control condition (already a considerable
amount). Hence this is an intervention that works
most for individuals not culturally minded in that it
helps them take useful cultural information into
account. To help students who are already cultur-
ally minded make even more finely calibrated de-
cisions, another kind of manipulation may be
needed.

FIGURE 4
Graph Depicting the Interaction Between Experimental Condition and Cultural Metacognition on

Expectations That Japanese Counterpart Would Be Cooperative in an Upcoming Negotiation (Study 3A).

2013 465Mor, Morris, and Joh

STUDY 3B

Although Study 3A revealed that offering a cultural
perspective-taking intervention to individuals low
on cultural metacognition enhanced their expecta-
tion that their different-culture counterpart would
cooperate in an upcoming international negotia-
tion, we did not examine whether this intervention
also directly increased intercultural cooperation
decisions of MBAs low on cultural metacognition.
Thus, the aim of Study 3B was to examine Hypoth-
eses 2b and 2c in a unified study design.

Method
Participants and Procedures

Seventy-six American adults (100% White/Cauca-
sian, Female � 52%; Mean Age � 34, 26% college
students, 62% currently working) were recruited by
way of Mechanical Turk and were asked to com-
plete a survey on decision making. The procedure
was the same design as Study 2. Participants were
randomly assigned to a cultural perspective-
taking or control condition.

Mixed-Motive Conflict

Participants were asked to read a scenario which
was a Prisoner’s Dilemma task presented as an
advertising task. The task presented was the same
task presented in Study 2.

Manipulation

Next, participants in the cultural perspective-
taking condition were asked to think about their
Chinese counterpart’s cultural values before mak-
ing their decision in the business scenario (same
task as Study 2).

Business Decision

Next, participants were asked to make their deci-
sion in the case (to advertise/not advertise).

Manipulation Check

After making their decision, participants indicated
whether they thought about Chinese cultural val-
ues while evaluating the case which served as a
manipulation check using the following three
items (as in Study 2): “I tried to think what a Chi-
nese manager would do in this case”; “I thought

about Chinese business norms when making my
decision”; “I thought about Chinese cultural val-
ues when making my decision.” Items were aver-
aged to create a score for each participant (1 � not
at all; 7 � very much; � �. 83).

Expectancies

We also evaluated participants’ inferences about
their Chinese counterpart’s long-term relational
goals using the following statements: “I thought Li
would care about our long-term relationship”; “I
thought Li would be most concerned about making
profit” [Reversed]). The two items were averaged to
create a score for each participant (� � .87).

Cultural Intelligence Measure

At the end of the study, participants completed the
usual cultural intelligence assessment (cultural
metacognition: � �.87; Cognitive CQ: � � .86; Mo-
tivational CQ: � � .89; Behavioral CQ: � � .91). As
in the previous studies, these four cultural intelli-
gence factors were included as control variables in
our analyses.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

To test whether the CPT manipulation induced cul-
tural perspective taking, we ran an ANCOVA (be-
tween subjects factor: experimental condition; co-
variates: 4 CQ factors) on the cultural perspective-
taking scores and found that participants reported
greater levels of cultural perspective taking in the
CPT condition (M � 4.72) than the control condition
(M � 3.55), F(1,76) � 11.77, p � .01.

We first tested Hypothesis 2a, which suggested
that cultural perspective taking would promote in-
tercultural cooperation. To do so we conducted a
binary logistic regression using experimental con-
dition as a predictor variable on participants’ de-
cision to cooperate. Consistent with Hypothesis 2a
(and results from studies 2A and 2B), the CPT con-
dition had a positive effect on choosing a cooper-
ative strategy with Li, � � 1.06, SE � .51, Wald (1)
� 4.30, p � .05.

Next, we conducted a binary logistic regression
analysis to examine whether expectations about
the Chinese counterpart’s strategy explained the
relationship between the experimental condition
and decision to cooperate. When both experimen-
tal condition and expectations about counterpart’s
cooperation were entered into the binary logistic

466 SeptemberAcademy of Management Learning & Education

regression model, the effect of CPT turned statisti-
cally nonsignificant, � � .74, SE � .55, Wald (1)
� 1.80, p � .18, while expectations about Li’s rela-
tional goals remained a significant positive pre-
dictor of cooperation, indicating mediation, � � .66,
SE � .21, Wald (1) � 9.60, p � .01 (see Figure 5). A
bootstrapping test confirmed there was a positive
indirect effect between CPT on intercultural coop-
eration by way of expectations about counterpart’s
relational goals (95% CI [.03, 1.59]). The results
above provide additional support for Hypotheses
2a and 2b by revealing that the CPT manipulation
increased the likelihood of choosing a cooperative
strategy with a Chinese counterpart by heighten-
ing expectations that the Chinese counterpart
would chose a cooperative strategy as well.

Next, we examined Hypothesis 2d and tested
whether inducing CPT had a greater positive effect
on decisions to cooperate for individuals low on
cultural metacognition. To test this hypothesis, we
conducted a binary logistic regression analysis
and tested for an interaction between the experi-
mental manipulation and cultural metacognition
on decision to cooperate. Analyses revealed a sig-
nificant interaction, � � �1.47, SE � .63, Wald (1)
� 5.55, p � .05. To probe the interaction, we con-
ducted simple slope analysis (Aiken et al., 1991),
examining the effect of the experimental condition
in individuals low on cultural metacognition ver-
sus those high in cultural metacognition. Consis-
tent with our predictions, analysis revealed that
individuals low on cultural metacognition were
significantly more cooperative in the CPT condi-
tion than the control condition, � � 1.39, SE � .48,
Wald (1) � 8.41, p � .01. At the same time, the CPT

manipulation did not enhance cooperation levels
for individuals high on cultural metacognition,
� � �.08, SE � .35, Wald (1) � .05, p � .82.

DISCUSSION

In five studies we provided a comprehensive test of
our hypotheses positing that a metacognitive ten-
dency, namely— cultural perspective taking— can
promote intercultural cooperation and be espe-
cially useful for promoting intercultural coopera-
tion among American MBA students and working
adults low on cultural metacognition. Our research
contributes to ongoing research in management
education and learning by providing a novel
framework utilizing both an individual difference
approach and situational priming geared toward
identifying and developing individuals and man-
agers’ cross-cultural management skills.

Theoretical Implications

While much of past research on cultural intelli-
gence (CQ) has focused on identifying the link
between cultural intelligence and managerial per-
formance measures (for a review see Ang, Van
Dyne, & Tan, 2011), our research is the first to iden-
tify a cognitive-based mechanism associated with
one of the factors of cultural intelligence. More-
over, we provide the first empirical evidence that a
cognitive mechanism— cultural perspective tak-
ing— has a direct positive effect on behavioral
measures associated with managerial perfor-
mance in culturally diverse settings, spanning in-
tercultural collaboration in international teams,

(.74)

Experimental
Condition
(0=Control;
1=CPT)
Intercultural
Cooperation
Expectation
about

counterpart’s
relational goals

β = .68*

β = 1.06*

β = .66**

FIGURE 5
Mediation Model Showing the Positive Effect of Cultural Perspective-Taking Condition on Intercultural
Cooperation Is Mediated by Expectations That the Chinese Counterpart Holds Relational Goals (Study 3B).

Note. Regression results are reported in unstandardized betas. * � p � .05; ** � p � .01.

2013 467Mor, Morris, and Joh

decision making in mixed-motive conflicts, and
preparation for international negotiations.

Interestingly, while past CQ research and theory
has suggested that cultural knowledge (cognitive
CQ) should lead individuals to have more accurate
understanding of foreign cultures (Ang et al., 2007),
the results of Study 1 do not support these assump-
tions, nor does recent research revealing no asso-
ciation between self-reported cognitive CQ and
cross-cultural accuracy (Mor, Ames, & Joh, 2013).
The results revealed that only metacognitive CQ,
and not cognitive CQ, was associated with cul-
tural perspective taking. These results suggest
that the ability to accurately detect culture-specific
congruent or incongruent norms may require the
development of metacognitive habits in tandem
with foreign cultural knowledge.

Cultural Intelligence and
Intercultural Relationships

Our findings contribute to the growing body of
research on how dimensions of cultural intelli-
gence (CQ) affect people’s abilities to manage var-
ious forms interdependence with counterparts
from different cultures. Recent research by Chua,
Morris, and Mor (2012) focused on collaborations
within the context of professional networks. They
found that executives with a higher proclivity to-
ward cultural metacognition attain more creative
collaboration success in their intercultural ties, as
they develop more affect-based trust in these ties,
relative to those lower in cultural metacognition.
In the context of intercultural negotiations, Imai
and Gelfand (2010) have found that motivational
CQ (the motivation and efficacy to engage cultur-
ally different others) predicted integrative behav-
iors, resulting in higher joint gains and that behav-
ioral CQ (behavioral flexibility during intercultural
interactions), but not other dimensions of CQ, pre-
dicted sequences of cooperative strategies. Our
research adds to this stream of research by (1)
identifying strategies for using cultural knowledge
that are associated with cultural metacognition,
such as cultural perspective taking, and (2) exam-
ining whether metacognitive strategies can be in-
duced through an intervention guiding perspective
taking. Our research also reveals the discriminate
validity of the cultural metacognition factor from
the three other CQ factors, a query recently advo-
cated by Van Dyne et al. (2012).

Our findings further extend past research exam-
ining intercultural trust and collaboration (Chua et

al., 2012; Takahashi, Yamagishi, Liu, Wang, Lin, &
Yu, 2008) by examining the role of cognitive-based
tendencies rather than affective mechanisms lead-
ing to intercultural trust and collaboration. Past
research finds that trust leads to better rapport,
which increases willingness to cooperate with oth-
ers in mixed-motive conflicts (Drolet & Morris,
2000). Trust can arise by way of two distinct psy-
chological processes: a cognitive evaluation of the
other party’s competence and reliability, or an af-
fective experience of liking and rapport (McAllis-
ter, 1995). The former is based on expectations of
task-related competence and involves an analytic
and utilitarian assessment of the other party; the
latter is closely linked to empathy and rapport, and
arises from emotional closeness. These two types
of trust closely resemble two central dimensions of
social perception: warmth and competence (Fiske,
Cuddy, & Glick, 2007). Affect-based trust is strongly
linked to perceived warmth, cognition-based trust
to perceived competence. We argue that cognitive-
based mechanisms leading to intercultural trust
and cooperation are important to examine for a
number of reasons. First, McAllister (1995) notes
that some level of cognition-based trust is neces-
sary for affect-based trust to develop. Second, ne-
gotiations scholars have found that differences in
cognitive schema impede the building of trust in
intercultural negotiations (Brett & Okumura, 1998;
Jang & Chua, 2011). When negotiating across cul-
tures, negotiation counterparts do not always
share the same implicit scripts, norms, and as-
sumptions. We argue that matching the cognitive
schemas of counterparts, for example, by engaging
in cultural perspective taking, can facilitate bridg-
ing across differences in cognitive schema. At the
same time, future research should continue to in-
vestigate differential effects of cognitive- versus
affective-based mechanisms in intercultural
exchanges.

Also important, our research makes a contribu-
tion to the broader literature on cross-cultural or-
ganizational behavior by empirically examining
intercultural interactions. While much of the orga-
nizational behavior literature discusses cross-
cultural interactions, very few studies empirically
investigate these interactions (Gelfand, Erez, & Ay-
can, 2007). Studies that do examine cross-cultural
interactions and adaptation tend to take a long-
term orientation (Mendenhall & Oddou, 1985), and
relatively few examine discreet, individual inter-
actions that cross cultural boundaries (Adair, Oku-
mura, & Brett, 2001; LaBahn & Harich, 1997; Molin-

468 SeptemberAcademy of Management Learning & Education

sky, 2007). By examining an individual’s behavior
as a function of both their levels of cultural intel-
ligence, as well as the culture of a relevant other,
we extend prior work on cross-cultural interactions
and provide a framework with which future re-
searchers can further extend the body of knowl-
edge on cross-cultural organizational behavior.

Mindfulness in Management

Previous research has argued that mindfulness
training may ameliorate the potential for emo-
tions, fears, prejudices or biases to “hijack”
thought and action (Langer, 2000). A psychological
definition of mindfulness is bringing one’s com-
plete attention to the experiences occurring in the
present moment, in a nonjudgmental and accept-
ing manner (Baer, 2003; Brown & Ryan, 2003; Kabat-
Zinn, 1982). Differently put, it is the “simple act of
drawing novel distinctions” helping us have a
“greater sensitivity to context” and overcome, or
not form, mind-sets that may limit our thinking
(Langer, 2000). It is also suggested that the tech-
niques for cultivating mindfulness all rely upon
slowing down the onrush of mental activity and
trying to focus attention on the world of sensations
in itself rather than “jumping on the first interpre-
tation that comes along” (Claxton, 1997: 183). Along
the same vein, our research provides empirical
evidence suggesting that being mindful of
different-culture counterparts’ thoughts and feel-
ings (by engaging in cultural perspective taking
examined in Study 1) as well as being aware of
different-culture counterparts’ values and beliefs
(Studies 2 and 3) can facilitate intercultural coop-
eration associated with cross-cultural managerial
performance. Similarly, scholars have noted that a
mindful manager—a manager who adopts a posi-
tive nonjudgmental and reflective stance—might
be more likely to engender enhanced empathy and
positive regard that influences task (e.g., financial)
and relational (e.g., long-term business relation-
ship) instrumental outcomes, as well as well-being
(Davidson et al., 2003; Kopelman, Avi-Yonah, & Var-
ghese, 2011). A recent review of mindfulness and
management research suggests that mindfulness
practices can enhance task performance (Dane,
2011). Consistent with these claims, our research
offers an intervention that is associated with en-
gaging in mindfulness about a counterpart’s cul-
tural background and has a direct positive effect
on relational organizational outcomes, such as col-
laboration in international teams (Study 1) and

decision making in mixed-motive conflicts (Studies
2 and 3). Thus, future research should continue
developing interventions focused on making man-
agers mindful of cultural cues in organizational
contexts and examine their effects on managers’
cross-cultural management skills.

Practical Implications

Cross-Cultural Training

To date, one of the most common formats for con-
ducting cross-cultural training programs includes
brief lectures that provide basic information about
the history and socioeconomic situation of a target
or foreign culture (Bhawuk & Brislin, 2000; Earley,
Ang, & Tan, 2006). However, the field has long rec-
ognized that this training approach is problematic
for a number of reasons. First, such training
does not adjust for individual differences in capa-
bility across cognitive, metacognitive, motiva-
tional, and behavioral skills (Earley & Peterson,
2004). Second, such training fails to consider the
nature of the target culture and the work to be
performed in terms of intensity, duration, and na-
ture (Earley et al., 2006). Third, the knowledge pro-
vided to managers in culture-specific training pro-
grams is not transferable across cultural domains
(Earley & Peterson, 2004).

Increasingly, managers take on more frequent
and shorter offshore assignments. As a result, de-
veloping metacognitive tendencies could be more
advantageous than previous frameworks for cross-
cultural training (Bhawuk & Brislin, 2000). As Ear-
ley and Peterson note (2004), career trends have
managers working in more countries and spending
shorter periods in any single country. Thus, it ap-
pears that cross-cultural training should shift to
harness managers’ metacognitive strategies in
tandem with providing in-depth analysis of cul-
tural differences. Developing metacognitive skills
are also important even for managers who don’t
leave their native country but work in internation-
ally diverse teams whose members follow a myr-
iad of country-specific cultural norms (Earley &
Mosakowski, 2000). In instances such as these,
training managers with country-specific knowl-
edge is less practical than equipping global man-
agers with metacognitive skills. With regard to
developing cultural metacognition, Tan and Chua
(2003) acknowledged that while CQ may be par-
tially determined by basic intellectual ability, an
individual’s CQ can still be improved through

2013 469Mor, Morris, and Joh

training. In fact, recent research finds that cross-
cultural management training can enhance cul-
tural intelligence dimensions (Eisenberg et al.,
2013; Rehg et al., 2012). In conclusion, the research
and training approach examined in this paper is
compatible with ongoing structural changes to in-
ternational assignments, and thus, is more practi-
cal and cost effective than training managers with
country-specific knowledge.

Training and Developing Cultural Metacognition

Researchers and practitioners alike may find that
training and harnessing metacognitive habits
among students and managers could benefit both
domestic and expatriate performance. For exam-
ple, teachers may decide to assign MBA students
who score higher on cultural metacognition to ne-
gotiate or work on class assignments with students
scoring low on cultural metacognition, as prior re-
search reveals that in dyads, it is the individual
with the higher metacognitive CQ that drives in-
tercultural success (Chua et al., 2012). Performance
feedback is also an important component for de-
veloping awareness and planning habits among
students. For example, teachers can provide stu-
dents with feedback from self- and peer-ratings, in
order to show them areas where their metacogni-
tive strategies could benefit from development.
Last, cultural simulator exercises (Triandis, 1995)
as well as research websites providing culture-
specific knowledge in business can be integrated
into class assignments prior to intercultural nego-
tiations or international teamwork assignments to
help students develop habits of planning and
awareness associated with higher levels of cul-
tural metacognition.

Working Effectively in Global Teams

Developing metacognitive habits in managers is of
particularly high importance for the success of
multinational teams (Earley & Peterson, 2004).
Global teams often face the challenge of getting
members from different cultures and countries to
work effectively with one another (Earley & Gib-
son, 2002; Hagel & Brown, 2005). Establishing com-
mon goals, clear roles, and consensual norms of
conduct is made difficult by cultural differences
(Earley & Gibson, 2002; Earley & Mosakowski, 2000).
As a result, global teams often search for common-
alities to create a hybrid culture (Adler & Bar-
tholomew, 1992; Earley & Mosakowski, 2000). One

way in which a hybrid culture can develop is by
establishing shared schemas for work tasks. Ac-
cording to Earley and Peterson (2004), metacogni-
tion is critical for developing such shared sche-
mas. Thus, future research should examine
whether a cultural perspective-taking intervention
may enable managers to bridge cultural differ-
ences in global teams.

Developing Cross-Cultural Negotiation Skills

Intercultural negotiations often fail (Brett & Oku-
mura, 1998; Graham, 1985), and thus far manage-
ment education has developed few tools for im-
proving cross-cultural negotiation skills and
outcomes (Adair et al., 2001). A review of negotia-
tion simulations designed to teach cross-cultural
negotiations revealed that most either prepare stu-
dents for particular cultural preferences or partic-
ular cultural styles of communication (Adair, 2008).
In contrast to these types of interventions, a
metacognitive-strategy intervention may instill
general skills for facing differences (Brett, 2007).
Our proposed intervention for cross-cultural nego-
tiation training is consistent with Adler’s (1997)
proposition that cultural adaptation in negotia-
tions (such as matching your counterpart’s strat-
egy) may increase the chances of positive negoti-
ation outcomes. Moreover, the argument that CPT
may promote intercultural negotiation outcomes is
also consistent with past research findings that
general perspective taking in negotiation—the ac-
tive consideration of the other party’s alternatives
and interests prior to negotiation—aids negotia-
tors in both claiming and creating value (Galinsky
et al., 2008; Kemp & Smith, 1994; Neale & Bazer-
man, 1982).

Future Directions

One question that arises from our findings is how
individuals high on cultural perspective taking
adapt to situations in which different-culture coun-
terparts disconfirm culture-based expectations.
Recent research reveals that individuals high on
cultural metacognition are more apt at adjusting
their expectations when a different-culture coun-
terpart disconfirms culture-specific behaviors (Mor
& Morris, 2013). At the same time, congruent with
our findings, individuals high on cultural metacog-
nition are also more likely to apply culture-based
assumptions when a counterpart confirms culture-
based expectancies, such a Chinese person behav-

470 SeptemberAcademy of Management Learning & Education

ing in a way that confirms a preexisting assump-
tion that she would behave in accordance with
collectivistic values. This agility in applying and
updating assumptions seems like an important
cognitive capability, where globalization forces
may be reducing conformity to culture-based val-
ues and behaviors among some individuals (Fu,
Morris, Lee, Chao, Chiu, & Hong, 2007), and thus,
individuals may need to engage in contingent ap-
plication of culture-based knowledge to arrive at
more coordinated and successful interpersonal
outcomes.

Limitations

The present research has several limitations wor-
thy of note. First, the cultural metacognition scale
is vulnerable to the limits in people’s ability to
reflect upon their mental processes (Nisbett & Wil-
son, 1977). At the same time, past research finds
convergent validity between self-reports and ob-
server reports, suggesting that metacognition is
rated from overt words and behaviors rather than
introspection (Kim & Van Dyne, 2012; Van Dyne,
Ang, & Koh, 2008). Another limitation of the study is
that we examined a cultural perspective-taking
intervention with collectivistic but not individual-
istic counterparts. Also our samples included
mostly Americans. We focused on collectivistic
counterparts when testing the CPT intervention be-
cause of the greater cultural distance between
American culture (individualistic) and Chinese
and Japanese cultures (Oyserman, Coon, & Kem-
melmeier, 2002). At the same time, it is important to
note that past research has found that general
perspective taking can enhance a competitive ori-
entation in competitive contexts but less so in co-
operative situations (Epley, Caruso, & Bazerman,
2005). These findings suggest that cultural per-
spective taking may facilitate cooperation and
joint gains more with collectivistic than individu-
alistic counterparts. Indeed, recent research finds
that East Asian negotiators taking the perspective
of North American negotiators were more self-
interested (than other oriented) and claimed more
value in the negotiations (Lee et al., 2011). None-
theless, we claim that cultural perspective taking
may provide more realistic expectations about
counterparts’ goals and behavior which may facil-
itate social coordination. Consistent with this
claim, prior research found that people from indi-
vidualistic cultures display less cooperative be-

havior in a Prisoner’s Dilemma task than collectiv-
istic individuals (Cox, Lobel, & McLeod, 1991).

Third, while in our studies we did not collect
information about participants’ past experiences
or knowledge with the specific foreign culture of
one’s counterpart, we did assess participants’ for-
eign cultural knowledge by way of the cultural
intelligence assessment and used participants’
levels of foreign cultural knowledge (cognitive CQ)
as a control variable in all of our analyses. The
results revealed that participants self-reported
cognitive CQ did not explain or change our effects.
At the same time, we do recognize that future stud-
ies should examine whether general knowledge of
counterpart’s culture is associated with cultural
perspective-taking tendencies. Another limitation
of the present research is that we have tested some
of our hypotheses using simulated cases rather
than real-life interactions. While recognizing the
limitations of Studies 2 and 3B using a simulated
scenario, we found that the findings from these
studies are consistent with studies examining be-
havioral tendencies by peers (Study 1) and a nego-
tiation exercise that had taken place with a real
counterpart (Study 3A). Along the same vein, much
of past research using economic games relies on
simulated cases or interactions to infer actual real-
world behaviors in real-life interactions and has
found convergent validity across these methods
with field studies (Fein & Spencer, 1997; Landis,
Brislin, & Hulgus, 1985).

CONCLUSIONS

In this article we have focused on identifying and
training a cognitive habit of managers highly ef-
fective at intercultural collaboration: high cultural
metacognitive habits. Future research should con-
tinue examining adaptive cognitive- and affective-
based psychological mechanisms utilized by man-
agers who effectively collaborate with different-
culture counterparts. Notably, the findings and
approach put forth here can provide management
and education scholars with novel insights about
developing interventions and tools for global man-
agers who need to successfully master intercul-
tural collaborations across a wide range of
cultures.

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474 SeptemberAcademy of Management Learning & Education

Shira Mor is an assistant profes-
sor of organizational behavior at
the Rotterdam School of Manage-
ment, Erasmus University. Mor
received her PhD in management
from Columbia University. In her
main line of research, she exam-
ines individual and situational
factors that facilitate managers’
intercultural relationships. In her
secondary line of work, she in-

vestigates psychological and behavioral factors that promote
women’s negotiation performance.

Michael W. Morris is a Chavkin-
Chang Professor of Leadership in
the Management Division of Co-
lumbia Business School. Morris
received his PhD in social psy-
chology from the University of
Michigan. His main areas of re-
search are cultural influences on
cognition, individual judgment
and decision making, and nego-
tiation and conflict resolution.

Johann Joh is currently a doctoral
candidate at London Business
School. The central theme of his
research interests is the relation-
ship among cultures, identity,
and cognition with focuses on
three lines of research: (1) culture
and identity, studying the impli-
cations of cultures to the self-
identity; (2) culture and cognition,
studying how cultural experi-
ences influence cognitive pro-

cessing of information and the development of cognitive func-
tioning; and (3) the interaction between cultural identity and
cultural cognition.

2013 475Mor, Morris, and Joh

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